Faculty of Education - Theses
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ItemDeveloping and validating an operationalisable model of critical thinking for assessment in different cultures( 2022)Critical thinking has become an educational priority worldwide, as it is considered to play a fundamental role in problem-solving, decision-making and creativity. Yet the evidence is mixed about whether and how our education system produces good critical thinkers, and this is particularly evident in studies of the relative performance of Chinese and Western students. This study began with the assumption that the mixed evidence might in part be understood as resulting from a mismatch between the expectations of critical thinkers and the model of critical thinking adopted for its assessment. A review of literature suggested that the mismatch might stem from difficulties in operationalising the current theories of critical thinking in assessments. Drawing on a range of multidisciplinary studies of critical thinking, an operationalisable model of critical thinking was developed that includes a cognitive skill dimension and an epistemological belief dimension. Three assessment instruments were designed to validate the multidimensional model. The two dimensions of critical thinking were assessed separately as per existing assessments practices, and in an integrated manner. Performances on the three assessments were examined based on the data collected from a convenience sample of 480 higher education students in Australia (N=233) and China (N=247). Rasch analysis was conducted to examine the psychometric properties of the three instruments. Latent regression analysis with Rasch modelling and latent profile analysis were conducted to compare the performance patterns of critical thinking competency between the sampled groups. The results showed that the instruments were reliable for the measurement of the intended construct model and performed in an unbiased manner across the sampled groups. The results produced by the two approaches (separate and integrated assessment) were consistent. The two approaches can provide useful information for different purposes. It was found that the students in the Chinese sample performed at a lower level than the students in the Australian sample on all of the assessment instruments, and the two samples showed different performance patterns between the groups in the two components of the model. The study concluded that the operationalisable model provides a way of understanding conflicting evidence about patterns of critical thinking found in different cultures, and may inform tailored strategies for teaching critical thinking.
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ItemTeacher questioning practices across a sequence of consecutive mathematics lessons: a multiple-case study of junior secondary teachers in Australia and mainland China( 2017)Question asking is one of the most common strategies used by teachers in their everyday classroom instructional practice. Over recent decades, many attempts have been made to categorise teacher questions asked during classroom instruction and to report on teachers’ skilful questioning strategies. These categorisations consider the context where the questions are asked, the appropriate use of different types of questions, the learning opportunities created in the sequences of teacher-student interactions and so on. This study was designed to extend our understanding of teachers' questioning practices in classrooms through a fine-grained analysis of mathematics lessons taught by four competent junior secondary teachers from mainland China and Australia. The study demonstrates the importance of examining teaching strategies over a sequence of lessons, the power of the IRF (Initiation-Response-Follow-up) framework as a basic structure for investigating classroom interactions, and the complexity of teaching practices, made evident through the focused investigation of the ubiquitous practice of teacher questioning. Based on the IRF framework, a comprehensive coding system was developed to analyse what kinds of verbal questions were initiated by the teachers to elicit mathematical information and in what ways the teachers made use of students’ verbal contributions in order to facilitate student construction and acquisition of mathematical knowledge. In particular, a distinction was made between Q&A question pairs, IRF (single) sequences, and IRF (multiple) sequences. Classification systems were developed for question types within each interactive category. Within IRF (multiple) sequences, the categories: initiating and follow-up represented a fundamental distinction, each category having its own suite of sub-categories. For each participating teacher, a whole unit of consecutive lessons was examined (from 6 to 10 lessons per unit). Analysis of the data suggested that: (1) Across the professional practice of the four teachers, two each in mainland China and in Australia, similarities and differences in the ways in which teachers employ questioning strategies were observed. The differences regarding questioning strategies across the consecutive lessons include: (i) number/frequency of questions asked in each lesson; (ii) the proportions of questions in IRF (multiple) sequences and the proportions of the questions in Q&A question pairs and IRF (single) sequences; and, (iii) the use of subcategories for initiation questions in each lesson. And the similarities are as follows: (i) the proportion of initiation questions in IRF (multiple) sequences out of all questions in each lesson; and, (ii) the use of subcategories for follow-up questions in each lesson. The essential point suggested by the comparison of similarities and differences regarding teacher questioning practices in this study is that the Chinese teachers and Australian teachers employed questioning strategies with similar forms but with distinctly different functions. (2) Regardless of the geographical location of the classroom, teachers’ questioning strategy choice is made rationally based on such contexts as the nature of instructional tasks and the constraints facing the teachers at the time. Those constraints might involve time limit and overemphasis on procedural fluency caused by the need to prepare students for high-stakes examinations, the demands of catering to students’ individual differences, the need for coherent delivery and explanation of sophisticated mathematics and the need to elicit information about student existing understanding. Unlike the two Chinese teachers who valued the achievement of lesson goals above any other factors, both Australian teachers placed greatest emphasis equally on students’ demands and lesson content. (3) In the case of the use of the three kinds of IRF (multiple) sequences (leading, facilitating/probing, orchestrating), the nature of teacher lesson planning – collaborative and institutionalised in the case of mainland China, and individually done in the case of Australia – affects how teachers make use of questions in class. These local educational contexts pose culturally-situated challenges, even though the teacher questioning strategies that are chosen and performed may reflect rational professional decisions by all four teachers, predicated on similar pedagogical goals. Teachers’ adjustment of their questioning routines in response to competing tensions in their classroom practices provided some of the most interesting features of the research. In addition, this study also suggests that teacher professional development program designers should ensure that novice teachers are given an opportunity to observe the teaching of a sequence of lessons and to observe closely how one expert teacher’s questioning strategies are strategically employed according to the demands of the particular lesson and its place in the topic sequence. Such strategic variation of questioning practice cannot be fully or correctly understood without the examination of the teaching of consecutive lessons.
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ItemTransitioning from a Chinese education to an Australia education: a study of foundation studies program students from China( 2015)This study was motivated by the growth of the Australian international education sector, increasing numbers of mainland Chinese students studying in Australian universities, and a lack of research relating to the Foundation Studies Programs (FSP) in which some Chinese students enrolled. In seeking to contribute to this gap in the FSP literature, this study investigated how a cohort of ex-FSP students from mainland China reflected on their transition through various stages of their education. Specifically, the main research question guiding this study asked, 'To what extent do Chinese students' higher education experiences align with their expectations as they transition from secondary schooling in China through to university in Australia?'. To address this question a mixed-methods design was utilised. This consisted of surveys being administered to Chinese and non-Chinese nationals within one FSP at entry and exit from the course, and subsequent semi-structured interviews with a cohort of these Chinese students who were now studying at university. Interview data comprised the bulk of this study's analysis, and revealed that Chinese students' expectations and experiences of education did not remain fixed as they transitioned between schooling contexts in China and Australia. The most salient feature of their transition experiences was the increased importance they placed on the social dimension seen to enhance their educational experiences. That is, where once these students viewed their entry into the FSP and gaining Australian higher education qualifications instrumentally, they later adjusted this view to include also the importance of developing and maintaining social relationships within educational contexts. This study's findings highlight the importance of social relationships across various schooling contexts, and challenge the assumption that FSPs ease international students' social transition into university.
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ItemConcept of spoken English( 2007)The study presented here examines the concept of spoken English held by tertiary teachers of English as a Foreign Language in China. The objective was to discover this knowledge so as to inform the design of professional development programs aiming to raise the standards of spoken English teaching in order to meet new government policy objectives. A college in South China was chosen as the research site and 17 EFL teachers participated in the study. Data were collected through the teachers' written responses to samples of spoken English, answers to a questionnaire, and focus group discussions. The findings of the study provide a 'map', showing both the range and the focus of how the teachers conceive of the features of spoken English across its different domains, and the gaps between these concepts of spoken English and those in contemporary theories. Although a wide range of features covering all domains of spoken English are included by the teachers as a group, most of them focus more on the features of formal accuracy and fluency than on those in the domain of sociolinguistic and strategic language use. The findings also suggest a number of reasons for this imbalance. These include practical constraints, such as the national examination guides and big class size, and the teachers' lack of confidence and knowledge in certain domains of spoken language use. Considered in light of current theories of language teaching, these findings show the knowledge, beliefs and assumptions of a representative group of teachers which can be used to guide the design of on-going professional development programs for such teachers in the area of spoken English pedagogy.
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ItemChallenges and possibilities of regional collaboration in East Asian higher education( 2015)In recent years, regional collaborations in higher education have been widely promoted around the world, as a basis for sharing of resources, conducting research into common problems and more broadly developing a sense of regional identity. The growth of regional collaboration among East Asian systems of higher education has been much anticipated. Despite substantial policy rhetoric, however, evidence-based analyses of actual collaborative practices among universities in China, Japan and South Korea are scant. This study seeks to provide an account of such practices by focusing on the challenges and possibilities of regional collaboration in East Asian higher education. It is based on data drawn primarily from document analysis and semi-structured interviews with executive leadership, academics and international strategy staff at eleven universities participating in two major programs of regional collaboration in East Asia: CAMPUS Asia and BESETOHA. Analysis of the data collected suggests that despite numerous challenges emanating from major cultural, economic and political differences across the three systems, the universities in East Asia remain optimistic about the possibility of increased levels of collaboration. Their optimism appears to rest on a common perception about the need to collaborate in order to meet the growing pressures of globalisation. Also significant is their inclination to focus on their abundant historical and cultural commonalities, along with their geographical adjacency, rather than on their differences. However the differences relating to competition over resources, historical suspicion and struggle for political supremacy remain. At this stage, small-scale trilateral networks of academic collaboration appear more feasible than the development of a stronger sense of regional identity, beyond the merely symbolic.
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ItemMeasuring university internationalisation: an indicator framework( 2015)This study investigated university internationalisation in different national contexts and developed a set of indicators to measure and compare university internationalisation performance across national boundaries. Internationalisation has been recognised by university policymakers as the key to perform successfully within the new global context. As internationalising a university requires a substantial and long-term investment of an institution’s financial and human resources, assessment and quality control are critical to ensure that it contributes to the relevance and quality of higher education and produces desirable outcomes. The importance of, motives for, and process of university internationalisation have been discussed and documented well in existing research, however, a limited number of studies have focused on measuring university internationalisation. It is not even clear what should and what can be measured with regard to university internationalisation. Through a combination of a critical literature review and qualitative interviews with policymakers from universities in Australia, Singapore, and China, this study established a conceptual framework of university internationalisation. Based on the framework, with the help of university practitioners, a set of internationally applicable indicators was developed to assist universities to systematically monitor and measure their internationalisation performance, and make comparisons with like institutions. The availability of data for the indicator set in different universities was also tested through an institutional survey. This study found that internationalisation is seen as a multi-dimensional phenomenon. The major incentive for institutional internationalisation is the pursuit for academic excellence. Seven key comparable dimensions were identified in university internationalisation strategies: research, student, faculty, curriculum, engagement, governance, and culture. Universities tend to place different priorities on these dimensions. National and institutional characteristics powerfully shape the understanding and practice of internationalisation. The indicator set established in this study provides a possible way for universities to measure their internationalisation performance and benchmark with others. Although the indicators are perceived as feasible, the data are not yet ready to report in most universities. This study contributes to a better understanding of university internationalisation and sheds light on the measurement of the phenomenon. The study suggests that universities may embrace internationalisation in various approaches; however, a holistic approach is highly likely to evolve at a mature stage. The theoretical framework and the indicator set developed in this study are expected to stimulate a more regular data collection mechanism. Policymakers are able to make evidence-based decisions with data generated by the indicator set. In measuring university internationalisation, this study suggests that available measurement instruments are more capable of assessing inputs and outputs rather outcomes.
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ItemAn investigation on the effects of music training on executive functions of preschool children in China( 2015)Numerous studies in the areas of neuroscience and music have reported effects of music instruction on the brain, such as increasing the size of the cerebellum, neural plasticity and structural change. More specifically, it has been suggested that music instruction may improve children’s executive functions, the collection of processes that are responsible for guiding, directing and managing cognitive, emotional and behavioural functions to solve problems, especially novel problems. There has been, however, very limited research on the relationship between executive function development and music. Previous studies have mainly focused on the relationship between music lessons and human memory, including working memory in adults, verbal memory and visual memory. This study used a mixed methods approach including pre- and post-tests of BRIEF-P (preschool version), classroom observations, and interviews to gather data. It was conducted in Beijing, China with two groups of preschool children who both had received no piano instruction initially. 112 three year old preschool children in total participated in this study. 56 in the treatment group were exposed to daily piano instruction for 40 weeks in a one year time frame, while the other half assigned into the control group did not received any piano instruction. Their executive functions were measured before and after the treatment by following the psychological test-BRIEF. The pre- and post-tests consisted of rating forms with 63 items in five non-overlapping scales that measured various aspects of executive functions including: Inhibit, Shift, Emotional Control, Working Memory and Plan/Organise. T-test analyses were then used within and between groups to find out whether piano instruction can make a significant improvement to the executive functions of preschool children. It was found that while the executive functions of both groups improved significantly in every aspect, the group receiving piano lessons outperformed the control group in terms of Shift, Emotional Control, Plan/Organise, Inhibitory Self-Control Index (ISCI), Flexibility Index (FI), and Global Executive Composite (GEC), the summary score of all clinical scales of the BRIEF-P test. The empirical findings showed that piano instruction is positively associated with executive function development and supported the hypothesis that piano instruction can help in executive function development of preschool children in China. Further empirical analyses showed that, except for Plan/Organise, all the scales and indexes of executive functions showed a greater improvement for the children with teachers who were more effective in piano instruction. The results support the importance of effective teachers in piano instruction. The moderating effects of teaching effectiveness on the relationship between piano instruction and executive function improvement in preschool children can be classified into four categories: (1) Inhibit, Working Memory and EMI – piano instruction alone cannot improve, but more effective teachers can enhance the impact of piano instruction and make the improvement significant, while less effective teachers cannot; (2) Shift, ISCI and GEC – piano instruction can improve marginally, and high teaching effectiveness level can further enhance the effect of piano instruction, while low teaching effectiveness level can reduce the effect and make the improvement insignificant; (3) Emotional Control and FI – piano instruction can improve marginally, and high teaching effectiveness level can further enhance the effect of piano instruction, while low teaching effectiveness level will reduce the effect, but the improvement remains significant; and (4) Plan/Organise – piano instruction can improve marginally, but teaching effectiveness cannot alter the effect of piano instruction.
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ItemMarket orientation in schools in Harbin, China( 2011)The research investigated two Chinese schools in Harbin, a city located in Northeast China, to find out to what extent the private School A (for-profit) and the public School B (not-for-profit) were market-oriented. Based on the existing literature of both marketing and market orientation, the research investigated the two schools and compared the results. Previous research shows that marketing and market orientation influence a school's performance. The research investigated this association, to discover whether this was the case within a Chinese education market context. The study used a case study approach using a mixed method. Qualitative methods included observations, document analysis, individual interviews with the principal, assistant principal, teaching and non-teaching staff, former students. The quantitative methods used a survey instrument to verify the qualitative research. The findings from both schools were outlined. A comparison of the two schools was discussed in the final chapter. The key features of market orientation were evidenced in the two cases to varying degrees, although each school held its own distinctive educational philosophy. The research findings showed that there was a positive link between market orientation and organisational performance. While the findings indicated a different approach to the market by the private and public schools, the research indicated that further research is necessary to verify the differences.