Melbourne Law School - Theses

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    Reforms of the International Tax System in Kuwait to Deliver a More Sustainable Revenue Base
    Alsairafi, Jumanah ( 2023-08)
    Blessed with vast oil reserves, Kuwait has historically relied on oil production as its primary source of government revenue. However, the inevitable fluctuation of oil prices and eventual depletion of resources necessitates the exploration of alternative revenue sources. Amidst a dearth of other major industries that could match oil’s economic output, taxation emerges as the most reliable income source capable of meeting escalating government expenditure demands. This thesis critically investigates Kuwait’s current income tax system, particularly considering global shifts in taxation policies. As a rentier economy heavily reliant on oil exports, Kuwait does not impose personal tax or VAT. Instead, it primarily relies on corporate tax—an income tax levied on net profits, notably from foreign companies operating within the country. However, this system is marked by ad hoc arrangements, inconsistencies, and meagre tax rates. Legislative loopholes further complicate the landscape, creating uncertainty, inviting tax disputes, and providing opportunities for multinational companies to exploit intricate schemes to evade taxes. Given the country’s economic and political circumstances, the likelihood of significant alterations for these features is slim. Therefore, this thesis advocates addressing legislative deficiencies to bolster tax revenue and prevent exploitation. The thesis explores two primary challenges in determining tax liability and ensuring that multinational corporations pay an appropriate amount of income tax in Kuwait. The first challenge pertains to the tax nexus for foreign entities operating within Kuwait, where current regulations may inadequately capture the full range of business activities, leading to potential revenue leakage. The second challenge concerns the application of transfer pricing rules—a complex area of taxation prone to manipulation, resulting in reduced taxable profit and subsequent lower tax revenue. While Kuwait’s current tax system has historically served it to some extent, it cannot continue to do so amidst evolving economic changes. The thesis underlines the urgent need for fundamental tax reforms, emphasising the importance of a consistent, transparent, and equitable taxation system for the nation’s long-term economic stability and growth. The study proposes several measures to improve Kuwait’s tax system’s efficacy and efficiency, including policy reforms to combat tax base erosion caused by multinational entities’ avoidance schemes. As there is limited literature on implementing a new income tax nexus and transfer pricing system in Kuwait, this thesis analyses the potential of these proposed reforms to address the country’s dwindling revenue issue. The suggestions presented in the thesis intend to address the identified challenges and ensure a more equitable and robust taxation framework capable of facilitating sustainable revenue collection in Kuwait. By doing so, the thesis substantially contributes to the broader discourse on tax reform in oil-exporting countries, providing critical insights to inform policy decisions.
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    Getting it right for the future : Aboriginal law, Australian law and native title corporations
    Frith, Angus Roycroft (University of Melbourne, 2013)
    When native title is recognised by Australian common law, by statute the court must determine a corporation to manage it, giving the native title group legal personality under Australian law. As a group, they can now make contracts, bold interests in land, and better engage with the broader economy. If these native title corporations are to manage native title effectively and achieve other benefits for the group, they must operate in both the Australian and the Aboriginal legal systems. However, use of corporations imposes the assumptions and theoretical underpinnings of the corporate form, developed in Western law over centuries, on relationships between Aboriginal people, their country and their law that have existed for thousands of years. The thesis considers several theoretical approaches for native title groups and their corporations engaging with two laws, including the Harvard Project's cultural match idea, legal pluralism and postcolonial theory. Specifically, Pearson's argument that native title recognition occurs in a 'recognition space' is applied to native title corporations and expanded by reference to Bhabha's conception of new political entities arising in a third space between the colonised and the coloniser. This thesis considers particular engagements between Aboriginal and Australian law in the third space, and contends that its boundaries should be semi-permeable to allow native title corporations shaped and influenced by both laws to operate across them in a manner controlled by the native title group. In its consideration of these issues, the thesis examines the nature of the corporate form, which is found to be contingent, having developed in response to particular circumstances and needs. It follows that the native title corporation can be adapted to meet Aboriginal needs. An examination of Aboriginal use of corporations shows that this has not occurred; rather they engage with Aboriginal law outside the formal structures of their corporations. Based on a multisite case study of two native title corporations that are engaging with Aboriginal and Australian laws, the thesis concludes that native title corporations are more likely to achieve the aspirations of native title groups if they are conceived as operating in a third space between both laws. In that space, better recognition of Aboriginal law governing the native title group's organisation and decision-making in corporate structures and operations, and its relationships with the group, governments and other parties would give these groups greater control of their engagement with the Australian society and economy through their corporations. Such corporations would become more Aboriginal and less corporate, reducing the impact of inappropriate corporate law norms. In this way, it is likely that they will become new political entities, neither wholly creatures of Aboriginal law nor of Australian law, but something in-between, which can engage effectively with both. They would thus become significant vehicles for Aboriginal people to achieve long-term economic, social and cultural aspirations: 'getting it right for the future'.
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    Lockean foundations of private property rights
    Elkman, Saba (University of Melbourne, 2013)
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    Unconditional life : the time and technics of international law
    Otomo, Yoriko (University of Melbourne, 2012)
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    The Court of Arbitration for Sport : law-making and thequestion of independence
    Vaitiekunas, Andrew (University of Melbourne, 2013)
    The Court of Arbitration for Sport ('CAS') was established by the International Olympic Committee ('IOC') in 1983 for the purpose of resolving international sports disputes. In its relatively short history, CAS has become the world's foremost sports arbitration tribunal. Notably, CAS's jurisdiction is recognised under the World Anti-Doping Code ('WADC) and under the statutes of all Olympic sports federations. A number of commentators claim that CAS's jurisprudence, described as a 'lex sportiva\ constitutes an autonomous body of law. If correct, such a development represents a significant contribution to world legal order. Legal theorists have identified a number of factors which are the hallmarks of a law-maker. One of these is independence. Independence is recognised as a law-making requirement in two different contexts, both of which are relevant to CAS. First, according to some scholars, a court must he perceived to he independent and impartial for it to he regarded as a law-maker. Although CAS is not a court, its compliance with recognised judicial standards of independence and impartiality may enhance its prospects of being regarded as a law-maker. Second, in the case of a non-state normative order, its independence from state law is considered necessary for it to he a law-maker. Unless a non-state order has independence from state law, it does not have final authority over its affairs and therefore cannot he considered a law-maker. The thesis examines the role of independence in determining a body's law-making status and assesses CAS's independence. In particular, the thesis assesses CAS's independence from the Olympic Movement, on the one hand, and from state law, onthe other. First, the thesis shows that CAS falls short of judicial standards of independence and impartiality and that this detracts from CAS being a law-maker. The thesis makes a number of recommendations the purpose of which is to enhance CAS's prospects of being a law maker. These encompass both changes of an institutional nature to ensure CAS's independence from the Olympic Movement governing bodies and also changes to the terms of appointment of CAS arbitrators to ensure their individual independence. Second, the thesis examines CAS's independence from state law and whether it exercises final authority in its decision-making. This is done with reference to Swiss law, the Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards (commonly known as the New York Convention {'NYC))^ (with particular attention paid to its role in United States' and Australian law) and European Union ('EU') law. The thesis shows that, although CAS has a large measure of independence in determining disputes, its independence is not unlimited. State public policy and EU competition and freedom of movement laws are key areas limiting CAS's independence and hence its final authority.
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    Elements of accessorial modes of liability : article 25(3)(b) & (c) of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court
    Finnin, Sarah. (University of Melbourne, 2011)
    The collective nature of participation in international crimes has made accessorial modes of liability fundamental to the effort to prosecute individuals for such crimes. The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court recognises three accessorial modes of liability: ordering (in Article 25(3)(b)), soliciting/inducing (in Article 25(3)(b)) and aiding and abetting (in Article 25(3)(c)). The purpose of this thesis is to assist the Court in interpreting these provisions by developing proposed material and mental elements for the three accessorial modes of liability. The development of proposed elements for accessorial modes of liability is necessary because while detailed elements for the substantive crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court have been identified in the 'Elements of Crimes' adopted by the Assembly of States Parties to the Rome Statute, no such elements have been elaborated for the modes of liability in those crimes. This is despite the fact that the elements of modes of liability are just as complex, if not more so, than the elements of the substantive crimes. There is therefore considerable potential for' inaccuracy and inconsistency between the various Chambers of the Court in their elaboration of the elements of modes of liability. Furthermore, the potential impact of such inaccuracy or inconsistency on the liability of an accused tried before the Court is significant. The proposal for ordering includes a conduct element, two circumstance elements and a consequence element (each with an accompanying mental element). The conduct element describes a prohibited act. The first circumstance element qualifies the conduct element by describing the requisite features of that act. The second circumstance element qualifies the conduct element by describing the requisite features of the accused. Together, the conduct element and circumstance elements represent what is referred to throughout the thesis as the 'accessorial act'. The consequence element describes a result (that is, the commission or attempted commission of a crime by the principal perpetrator). This is referred to throughout the thesis as the 'accessorial object'. Finally, the proposal includes a causation requirement, which connects the conduct element and the consequence element. The proposal for soliciting/inducing largely replicates the proposal for ordering, except that there is no circumstance element to qualify the conduct element by describing the requisite features of the accused. The conduct element and remaining circumstance element therefore constitute the accessorial act, and the consequence element constitutes the accessorial object. Like the proposal for ordering, the proposal for soliciting/inducing includes a causation requirement. The proposal for aiding and abetting includes a conduct element and a consequence element (each with an accompanying mental element). The conduct element constitutes the accessorial act, and the consequence element constitutes the accessorial object. Like the proposal for ordering, the proposal for aiding and abetting includes a causation requirement. In addition, the wording of Article 25(3)(c) requires proof of an additional (or special) mental element. It is hoped that this thesis will provide guidance to the Court when it seeks to apply the provisions regarding accessorial modes of liability to the first cases which come before it for trial.
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    Overcoming legal impediments to a comprehensive legislative basis for war crimes trials in Australia
    Nastevski, Vasko. (University of Melbourne, 2010)
    There are persistent allegations of war criminals from various conflicts that have occurred since the end of the Second World War residing in Australia. This raises difficult moral, legal and political questions for Australian authorities about how to deal with such allegations. War crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide are deemed to be the most serious crimes of concern to the international community and are now reflected in established international criminal law designed to bring individual perpetrators of such crimes to justice. However, Australia's record of domestically enforcing crimes found under international law is mostly non-existent. The practice of successive Australian Governments in dealing with war crimes reflects a piecemeal approach, whereby legislation has been enacted to give effect to various international treaties dealing with different types of war crimes. But, this legislation has either proven inadequate or has remained unused. Where war crimes trials have been initiated, they have ultimately proved to be ineffective. The thesis will challenge the existing state of affairs in Australia by firstly presenting a philosophical basis justifying the prosecution of individuals accused of committing international crimes in domestic Australian criminal courts and secondly, establishing that it is possible to overcome potential legal impediments to a comprehensive legislative basis for war crimes trials in Australia. The thesis proceeds on the basis that there is no justification for excusing war criminals from prosecution. The strong moral impact on society that the perpetration of war crimes has should ultimately be reflected in domestic legislation that provides for the prosecution and punishment of those committing such crimes in Australian courts. Indeed, there is a moral imperative that justice is done on behalf of victims and Australian society; and that the perpetrators are held accountable for their actions. The thesis employs an empirical analysis of existing Australian war crimes legislation and jurisprudence and then extends and relates that discussion to the possible conduct of future war crimes trials. A comparative analysis of domestic and international law is undertaken throughout the thesis that will demonstrate the legal capacity for establishing a systematic framework to facilitate prosecutions in Australia. This includes adopting a proper jurisdictional basis for war crimes trials; the enactment and operation of retrospective war crimes legislation; and challenges to the conduct of war crimes trials in Australian domestic criminal courts, such as appropriate judicial methodology in hearing and deciding such cases and whether a fair war crimes trial is possible. In demonstrating how the various perceived legal impediments and challenges can be overcome, the thesis also provides a broad blueprint for designing future Australian war crimes legislation. Ultimately, the contribution of the thesis will be to provide a validation for a comprehensive legislative basis for war crimes trials in Australia, particularly for the period between the end of the Second World War and the beginning of legislation giving effect to the provisions of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. At the same time, the thesis will recognise that political reality in Australia suggests that enacting such legislation is far from inevitable. The political unwillingness and reluctance by successive Australian Governments to investigate and prosecute alleged war criminals living in Australia is instructive. But as the thesis will argue, there is strong moral and legal justification for enacting new war crimes legislation in order to conduct war crimes trials and in doing so, it will announce that there is no safe haven for war criminals in Australia.
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    The development of a standard of review in world trade organization disputes
    Becroft, Ross Stuart. (University of Melbourne, 2010)
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    Genes, biotechnologies and legal imaginings : A feminist analysis of intellectual property law
    Limon, Cressida. (University of Melbourne, 2012)
    My thesis is concerned with narratives of invention and reproduction at the intersection of law and technoscience. The concept of invention is examined in a broad sense, not just as a positivist legal doctrine or as a process of technological development, but rather as a legal concept that is tightly bound to Western humanist philosophy. I argue that contemporary understandings of invention are tied to specific gendered and racial concepts. My research focuses on the ethical and political critiques of the legal treatment of technoscientific practices. I focus on genetics and reproductive technologies and consider the different ways in which the separation of ethics, discrimination and identity on the one hand, and property rights on the other, is a product of legal interpretation. In my thesis I focus on the places where these two realms are co-implicated, contradictory, or just confused. In particular, reproductive technologies are one area where the ethico-political stakes are apparent. I argue that patent law's claim to be concerned with the purely technical and economic aspects of invention is, in fact, a political and ethical stance first and foremost. My research problem began from a consideration of two major Australian law reform inquiries that purport to deal with the legal regulation of genetic technologies, the first related to discrimination and privacy issues and the second focussed on gene patenting. My argument, stated at the most basic level, is simply that the disjunction between the issues of discrimination (privacy and ethics) and property is problematic due to the underlying assumptions that form the rationale for such a disjunction. Further, these assumptions then limit the types of questions and arguments that can be asked (and exclude others altogether). Anti-discrimination law is, of course, a relatively new legal category (not unlike the patentable subject matter that I discuss). Anti-discrimination laws, like the new `bioethical' paradigm, have a common heritage in the form of human rights. The promise of such novel legislative regimes was the hope for some measure of social justice - and even more idealistically perhaps - that new forms of social relations would eventually come into being. The promise (as is always possible) was not fulfilled. Whereas patent law seems to be ever responsive to accommodate new claims of inventiveness, claims that seek a measure of social justice in the so-called private sphere of family, sexuality and reproduction are met with determinant appeals to tradition and nature. My argument is not that this is inconsistent or a paradox, but rather that they are two sides of the same coin. An analysis of the juridico-technical assertion of intellectual property rights in the form of patents, particularly in relation to genes and organisms (human and non-human), is developed in light of these theoretical approaches. I argue that patent law's claim to be technologically neutral forgets the point that law is always already implicated in what counts as invention. I call this law's ignorance about genetics.
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    Local women's NGOs and the reform of Islamic Law in Aceh : case study of MISPI
    Afrianty, Dina. (University of Melbourne, 2010)
    This thesis looks at the responses of local women's NGOs to the implementation of Islamic law in Aceh from 2006 to June 2009. In it, I argue that although the implementation of Islamic law in the province has placed some restrictions on women's freedom, it has not prevented women from engaging in public life. Acehnese women who have joined local women's movements have challenged the legal system and have demanded the reform of Qanun, or Provincial Regulations, the chief mechanism by which Islamic law has been introduced in Aceh. The implementation of Islamic law in Aceh has thus, in fact, motivated, even enabled, women's NGOs and other elements of civil society to become involved in wider discussion about the future faces of `sharia' in Aceh. The granting of Aceh of the right to apply precepts of 'syariat' in 1999 and the introduction of Qanun following the passing of Law No 18/2001 on the Special Autonomy have been responded to differently by different groups of Acehnese. Most Acehnese see the implementation of Islamic law as a path to authenticity and the return to Acehnese indigenous values, in particular Islamic values. Many hope it will be a path to regain Aceh's glorious past and distance them from Jakarta. However, there are also many Acehnese who demand reform of the Qanun, considering them to be biased and gender-insensitive. Local women's NGOs in Aceh have demanded reform of the Qanun and have promoted policy changes. Local women's NGOs develop people's awareness of their rights in Islam. They promote values and practices that do not discriminate against women. Local women's NGOs are adamant that legal reform should be carried out by rereading, or at least reinterpreting, the sources of Islamic law. The arrival of international organisations and foreign NGOs following the devastating tsunami on December 26, 2004 have introduced local women's NGOs to Western/international norms of Feminist discourse and human rights, in particular women's rights, and to new discourses such as gender equality and justice. These have now become part of their own, Acehnese, conversations. A case study of MISPI, Mitra Sejati Perempuan Indonesia (True Partner of Indonesian Women), a local women's NGO that responds to the implementation of Islamic law demonstrates local women's NGO's agency to enable Acehnese women to take active roles in Aceh's democratisation. MISPI understands that when working in a society where Islam and tradition are strongly entrenched in people's lives it needs to ensure that it works within that context. To do so it seeks to preserve its Islamic credentials while at the same time challenging conservative interpretation of Islam by pursuing a reinterpretation of the Islamic texts. It has developed networks with the male-dominated government and other authorities such as Ulama and the dayah community (traditional Islamic education) to introduce what it sees as more egalitarian interpretations of Islam. MISPI's activities thus mirror the broader agenda of Muslim women NGOs, which is framed under the rubric of `Islamic Feminism' to challenge the resurgence of Islamic conservatism. Although MISPI and its activists are still in their initial stages of introducing their ideas about Islamic equality and justice, the presence of democratic mechanisms in Aceh will allow MISPI to advance its agenda, which it is hoped will ultimately result in legal and social reforms that will further the empowerment of Acehnese women.