Melbourne Law School - Theses
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ItemThe development of Australian law to protect undisclosed business information( 1998)Traditionally, information has not generally been regarded by the common law as being property and able to be legally protected in the same way as land, money or goods. Australian courts have demonstrated great reluctance to change this approach, even though information is increasingly considered to be a valuable asset, particularly by the business community. However, a change in the way information is regarded has taken place over the last four to five decades, resulting primarily from the increased use of computer technology. In Australian law, organisations or individuals who wish to restrict access to their business information and keep it confidential currently have limited legal means to achieve their aim. The breach of confidence action, contract law, copyright law and criminal law may all be used to protect information from unauthorised access or use but only to a certain extent. In most instances these traditional legal approaches require that there is a confidential or contractual relationship between the parties, that the information be in an original form, or that the unauthorised access be made using computer technology. There are particular deficiencies in the legal protection available when undisclosed business information is accessed by a party outside a contractual or confidential relationship, often through improper means. Ways in which these deficiencies, particularly in respect to the breach of confidence action, could be overcome have been proposed by a number of law reform bodies, in Australia and overseas. However, no legislative amendments adopting these proposals have been introduced in Australia and judicial decisions indicate that the courts are likely to continue a conservative approach to the protection of information to avoid creation of barriers to the free flow of information. Different legal approaches to the protection of business information have developed in continental Europe and America. However a review shows that deficiencies in the protection offered have not been fully overcome in these jurisdictions. More recently, a number of international developments have taken place which are of significance to the protection of business information. The developments take different forms, either as binding international agreements, or non-binding agreements. Examples are the Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Agreement (TRIPS); the OECD Guidelines of Security for Information Systems and for Cryptography Policy; and the WIPO Model Provisions for Unfair Competition. These agreements establish new international standards relating to the protection of business information. The way in which these international agreements may become part of Australian domestic law and policy can be predicted and explained by analysing the nature and form of the relevant international agreements and the process by which they may become part of domestic law; by having regard to recent developments in this field in other countries; by analysing Australia's response to similar developments in the past, for example, the OECD Guidelines on the Protection of Privacy and Transborder flows of Personal Data; and by reviewing Australia's response so far to the latest developments relating to the protection of confidential business information.
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ItemInteraction between commercial & legal aspects of project finance in Australasia( 1997)The project finance technique emerged as a result of legal principles evolving to meet commercial needs. Its value - enabling companies to fund projects on other than their own credit standing and to diversify risks associated with projects - has been proved by a remarkable string of major developments which were unlikely to have been undertaken without such a financing method. Over the years, the technique has been adapted to a range of applications and industries. One of its most recent uses has been in private sector development of public infrastructure projects. It is in this climate of continued need for project financing that this thesis seeks to examine its development to date, its strengths and its weaknesses, and to consider what changes, if any, are needed to ensure its continued usefulness in the future. The growing body of work known as 'economic analysis of law' is used as a key to understanding these issues and to suggest possible ways forward. Risk is identified as being central to the project financing process. Its identification, allocation and mitigation are the building blocks of the technique. Parties trade risks and contractual arrangements are put in place to give effect to these compacts. These contracts have often been creative, responding to the commercial requirements of the particular development and the parties involved. Novel processes have been devised to deal with cases of project or operator failure, providing self governing and self executing regimes for the developments. These self contained mechanisms are a response to the fact that court adjudication of disputes in these transactions is often inappropriate. The sophistication of these arrangements, however, has also resulted in significant transaction costs. Lengthy and complex documentation is characteristic in these financings. The costs begin at the outset of the transaction in the time and money involved in negotiating documentation and, on an on-going basis, arise through the significant reporting burden usually imposed on borrowers and the restrictive provisions which require continual lender involvement in project decision making. The lengthy, detailed documentation provides the project management regime as it usually stipulates in great detail how the project is to be operated and what the borrower can and cannot do. However, the very long terms of these financings (at times 17 or 18 years), mean that parties are unlikely to succeed in anticipating and dealing comprehensively with every imaginable contingency. The use of such lengthy, detailed documentation will, therefore, be reviewed and a theoretical analysis presented of why project participants have adopted this strategy. This thesis also recommends alternative strategies for structuring the project finance relationship. The optimal solution for any project should still be determined on the specific circumstances on the case and is likely to combine elements of the current approach with some of the proposals suggested.
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ItemInsurable interest, indemnity and third party rights under general contracts of insurance and the Insurance Contracts Act 1984 : a comparative study( 1997)On 1 January 1986 a new era dawned for the development of insurance law in Australia, for on that day the provisions of the Insurance Contracts Act 1984 (Cth) (hereafter referred to as 'the Act') came into operation. Section 3 of the Act repeals for Australia certain Imperial Acts including the Life Assurance Act 1774, the Fires Prevention (Metropolis) Act 1774 and the Marine Insurance Act 1788. In so far as contracts of general insurance) can be governed by the laws of the Commonwealth of Australia, this repeal brought to an end a period of development of insurance law relating to:- a.. the concept of insurable interest; b. the principle of indemnity; and c. the rights of, and the classes of, persons entitled to make claims under contracts of general insurance. That development had commenced prior to the passage of the repealed Imperial Acts, but had been accelerated by, and as a result of, their passage. In Part III the Act lays down new rules with respect to the concept of insurable interest. Moreover, by sections 44, 45, 48, 49 and 76 certain material alterations are made to the law relating to: - a. the principle of indemnity; and b. the rights of, and the classes of, persons entitled to make claims under contracts of general insurance. In this thesis I propose to investigate and describe the law relating to:- a. insurable interest; b. the principle of indemnity; and c. the right of, and the classes of, persons entitled to make claims under contracts of general insurance, 1. as it had developed prior to the passage of the now repealed Imperial Acts, and their precursors; 2. as it developed after the passage of the now repealed Imperial Acts until the date of their repeal; 3. as it has been affected by the repeal and the new regime provided by the Act; and 4. as it is likely to develop in the future. Furthermore I propose to draw a comparison with the laws operating in the Netherlands, France and Germany at the relevant times to ascertain whether, and to what extent, such laws influenced the English law or were influenced by it. Finally the laws presently operating in those countries will also be examined by me to consider whether any, and if so which, recent continental developments might be useful, as indicating a solution to problems likely to face Australian Courts in the immediate future.
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ItemThe impact of Australia's refugee status determination system on its implementation of its refugee convention obligation on non-refoulement( 1994)Under article 33 of the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (Refugee Convention), Australia has a non-refoulement obligation in respect of `refugees'. This thesis examines whether Australia is violating article 33 of the Refugee Convention by failing to identify the `refugees' amongst its on-shore refugee status claimants. In the absence of a safe third country prepared to receive them, Australia has no choice but to allow persons identified as `refugees' to remain in its territory. The problem is that the Australian Government has goals for the nation it serves and the political party it represents which it believes will be jeopardised to the extent that it is unable to choose which aliens get to reside in Australia and which do not. In consequence, the Australian Government bas a negative attitude towards on-shore refugee status clat. Inimants. This negative attitude has transmitted itself to the officers of the Department of Immigration and Ethnic Affairs (DIEA) who are responsible for making refugee status determinations at the primary stage. DIEA decision makers tend to be overly restrictive in their interpretation and application of key elements of the Refugee Convention definition of `refugee'. On the other hand, the courts and the Refugee Review Tribunal (R.R.T.) - institutions which do not have the political agenda of the Australian Government - have come close to interpreting and applying the Refugee Convention definition of `refugee' in line with international standards. The problem is that not all refugee status claimants can afford to pursue R.R.T. and/or judicial review. This leaves open the possibility that Australia is risking breach of article 33 of the Refugee Convention by repatriating persons who are refugees but have not been identified as such. In order for Australia to avoid breaching article 33, its domestic legal and administrative regime considered as a whole must attain a standard of reasonable efficacy in the implementation of that article. In order for Australia to be assured of attaining a standard of reasonable efficacy, Australia's on-shore refugee status determination process must be designed to meet certain minimum procedural standards. These minimum procedural standards are: the use of an inquisitorial determination system; the maintenance of an independent documentation and research centre; the elimination of factors which could lead to incorrect adverse credibility assessments; the provision to claimants of all information available to the decision-maker; the use of independent, impartial, specialised, full-time, career decision-makers who are carefully selected and adequately trained; adequate access to legal assistance by claimants; the provision of an opportunity to be heard in person and by the decision-maker; the processing of claims without undue delay and adequate rights of review. Australia's refugee status determination system falls short of meeting these minimum procedural standards in some significant respects. It is conceivable that a State's other humanitarian protection measures may sufficiently compensate for an inadequate refugee status determination process by serving as a safety net for Refugee Convention refugees who are not identified by the refugee status determination process. Australia's humanitarian protection mechanisms, however, are not an adequate safety net for such persons.
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ItemMediation in environmental disputes : a cross cultural analysis( 1993)Environmental disputes are developing as one of the most important areas of conflict in Australia. The ability to manage them through effective processes is crucial to Australia's continued economic, social and political stability. Environmental mediation is a process of environmental conflict management which has received and continues to receive increasing interest. This . study will describe and analyse its use in Australia, Japan and the United States of America. The possible implications or "lessons" this may have for Australia will then be discussed. These "lessons" concern the importance of preserving conflict in the public domain, the need to avoid making environmental disputes a purely administrative issue, the need to maintain or enhance the role of the courts, and the problematic nature of the process of institutionalisation of environmental mediation services. The future development and implementation of environmental mediation will depend upon the characteristics that such disputes take on within Australian institutional frameworks.
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ItemThe Australian model of alternative dispute resolution for family disputes : could it work in Germany? : a comparative study with particular reference to the German constitution( 1992)The aim of this thesis is to examine whether alternative dispute resolution methods can be introduced into German family law. The thesis compares the Australian model of the application of alternative dispute resolution methods to family conflicts with the existing German situation. Particular attention is paid to those fundamental rights and principles contained in the German Constitution which may have an impact on the introduction of alternative dispute resolution methods. The conclusion is drawn that the position of the individual, marriage and the family in the German Constitution as well as the individual's right to effective legal protection not only allow but actually demand the introduction of alternative dispute resolution. methods. The comparison of the German and Australian situations also serves to throw new light on the Australian model of alternative dispute resolution methods for family disputes. The examination of fundamental legal principles such as the rule of law, the separation of powers and the autonomy of the individual, which are effective in both states, lends further support to the strengths of alternative dispute resolution methods as established in Australian family law. The examination also identifies a number of areas where, in contrast, the efficacy of alternative dispute resolution methods in Australia could be further improved.
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ItemSub judice contempt regarding publications : an evaluation and proposals for reform with particular attention to Australia's international law obligations( 1992)The current Australian law of sub judice contempt as it relates to publications attempts to strike a balance between two competing public interests: the public interest in freedom of speech and the public interest in the proper administration of justice. In Chapter I the adequacy of this approach to the values underlying the sub judice rules is examined. In that Chapter it is submitted that such an approach to the values underlying the sub judice rules should not be endorsed. Rather than couching the values underlying the sub judice rules in terms of competing public interests, it is suggested that those values should be recast in terms of a conflict between individual rights. It is submitted that, if the values underlying the sub judice rules are correctly characterised as individual rights, those rights are the right to freedom of speech and the right to a fair trial. The social-scientific literature concerning the free press-fair trial debate is evaluated to determine whether those rights are competing, or complementary. On the basis of that literature, it is concluded that pre-trial media comment can have a significant detrimental effect upon the capacity of the judicial system to provide a fair trial; and that no remedial or other preventative measure, whether alone or in conjunction with other measures, can counter the adverse effects of prejudicial media comment. In Chapter I it will also be argued that, as a matter of policy, the right to freedom of speech should yield to the right to a fair trial to the extent necessary to resolve any conflict which might arise between those rights. It is submitted that a publisher who publishes material which denies to another person his or her right to a fair trial should be punished for publishing the material and that liability for prejudicing another person's right to a fair trial should be imposed irrespective of the publisher's intention. It is suggested, however, that liability should not be imposed upon a publisher which has taken all reasonable steps to avoid the risk of harm from arising. In Chapter II, Australia's international obligations as they relate to the law of sub judice contempt regarding publications are identified. In that Chapter it is argued that the right to a fair trial, provided by article 14 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), encompasses the right to have a trial free of prejudicial media or other comment. It is suggested that, unlike the right to a fair trial provided by article 14 of ICCPR which is an absolute right, the right to freedom of speech provided by article 19 of ICCPR is a qualified right. Thus a State could legitimately restrict freedom of speech on the ground that the restriction is necessary for the protection of the right to a fair trial. On that basis, it is submitted that Australia would not be in breach of its international obligations if it places a limitation upon one individual's right to freedom of speech to protect another individual's right to fair trial. Further, if Australia does not place a limitation upon the right to freedom of speech and as a result of that failure an individual's right to a fair trial is prejudiced, Australia will be in breach of its international obligations. In Chapter III, the current Australian law relating to sub judice contempt by publication and the various proposals suggested for its reform are evaluated in light of the considerations of policy examined in Chapter I and Australia's international obligations as identified in Chapter II. A number of suggestions are made for reforming the law so that it achieves the resolution of the values underlying the sub judice rules which the considerations of policy examined in Chapter I and Australia's international obligations discussed in Chapter II require.
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ItemThe place of freedom of information legislation in civil litigation : new discoveries - old ways( 1990)In completing one discovery we never fail to get an imperfect knowledge of others of which we had no idea before, so that we cannot solve one doubt without creating several new ones'. Discoveries can be of many kinds; the word is one full of portent. It will be the aim of this paper to review the development and current status of documentary discovery in civil litigation and the impact, both actual and potential, of the introduction of freedom of information legislation on the discovery process as we know it and on the adversary system which is the foundation of the litigative process itself and of which discovery is, in conventional understanding, merely an adjunct. The emphasis will be on civil proceedings, although issues arising from criminal procedures may become relevant. The term discovery will be used in this work to refer to the discovery of documents in civil litigation and not, unless specifically stated, to other discovery devices such as interrogatories or oral examination. The much vaunted and rapidly developing information revolution experienced this century, in conjunction with the increasing complexity of our society and its social and commercial relationships, has,in a manner which lawyers of earlier centuries would never have contemplated, immeasurably increased our reliance on documentary evidence in all forms of civil litigation. We cannot even point to the development of the so called "paperless" office as an indication that our reliance on documentary material will diminish. The expanded definition of "document" to be found in legislation such as the Acts Interpretation Act 1901 (Cth), Interpretation of Legislation Act 1984 (Vic) and in freedom of information legislation indicates that. Yet discovery as we know it is only a recent development when viewed in terms of the history of our legal system, based as it is on English law and procedure. Before examining the more recent developments in discovery and the impact of the freedom of information acts, it is useful to briefly examine the origins and development of the discovery process.