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ItemAnalysis of 6-cys proteins and calcium fluxes during erythrocyte invasion by Plasmodium falciparum parasites( 2015)Plasmodium parasites amplify their population within the human host by invading, growing and replicating within the body’s erythrocytes. When the population becomes high enough, the damage caused produces symptomatic malaria disease. To develop new drugs and vaccines against malaria it is therefore important to know as much possible about how parasites grow within the human host and particularly about how the extracellular merozoite stage invades erythrocytes, since this short-lived stage is highly vulnerable. This thesis provides new information from the most deadly human malaria pathogen P. falciparum, on the biochemical characteristics of a little known family of merozoite surface proteins which were thought to facilitate erythrocyte invasion as well revealing with unprecedented resolution, new details about how merozoites enter erythrocytes. P12, P38, P41, and P92 comprise a group of blood-stage merozoite surface proteins that belong to the 6-cys family and all except P41 are predicted to have membrane anchors. To functionally characterize the proteins, specific antibodies were made and were then employed to block merozoite invasion by interfering with the binding of 6-cys to erythrocytes. The effect of the antibodies was very weak and therefore not indicative of a major role for 6-cys in invasion. The antibodies were then used as localization probes and indicated that P12 and P41 were at the merozoite periphery with some concentrated towards the apex. In addition, the non-anchored P41 was held on the merozoite surface through heterodimerization with the membrane anchored P12. Despite the P12/P41 heterodimer being in prime position to bind erythrocytes during invasion no evidence for binding could be established. Characterisation of P92 was next conducted and revealed that like the P12/P41 heterodimer, it was tightly associated with the parasite membrane and later cleaved off possibly during invasion. On the other hand, P38 did not shed from the merozoite surface, and it was carried into the erythrocyte. P92 was strictly localised to the apical end of the merozoite while P38 displayed both apical and surface localisation. Similar to the P12/P41 heterodimer, P92 does not appear to bind erythrocytes. In a final attempt to derive a function for the blood stage 6-cys, their genes were individually knocked out but none of the mutants produced any defective growth or invasion phenotypes suggestive of function. To further study invasion, the morphology and kinetics of this process in P. falciparum merozoites was examined with high-speed live-cell microscopy. With greater temporal resolution, novel cellular actions of the merozoites were observed. For example, during the 7.5 s pre-invasion phase the merozoite deforms the erythrocyte plasma membrane multiple times whilst re-orientating. After a brief rest, the merozoite invaded over a ~17 s period forming a vacuole mainly from wrapping the erythrocyte’s membrane around itself. About 18.5 s after entry, the merozoite began spinning in a clockwise direction to possibly to help disconnect itself from the erythrocyte membrane. After spinning had commenced the host erythrocyte began to develop a spiculated appearance called echinocytosis. Suspecting that calcium influx into the erythrocyte during invasion might be responsible for the echinocytosis, the appearance of these fluxes was monitored during invasion by live cell imaging. These observations confirmed for the first time, that a calcium flux originated as an intense spot emanating from the area of contact between the merozoite and erythrocyte suggestive of pore formation between the cells. Further experiments with modified levels of calcium indicated the ion is required for efficient invasion and may play role in causing echinocytosis. Other work using the calcium flux as a visual marker indicated that pore formation coincided with the deployment of tight adhesive proteins from the merozoite that commit it to invasion. The live cell imaging work presented therefore sheds considerable light on many details of merozoite invasion that could inform future drug and vaccine development. Supplementary Videos: Video 1. High-speed time-lapse acquisition of 3D7 merozoite invading the erythrocyte (40 fps). Video 2. The 3D7 merozoite invading the BODIPY FL C12-sphingomyelin labelled erythrocyte (2 fps, 2× real speed). Video 3. The 3D7 merozoite invading the erythrocyte in the presence of Fluo-4 AM showing the punctate apical calcium and calcium influx in the infected erythrocyte (3 fps, 8× real speed) Video 4. Fluo-4-stained 3D7 parasite culture showing merozoites attempting to invade in the presence of R1 peptide (3 fps, 8× real speed). The punctate apical calcium and influx in the attached erythrocyte were detectable. Video 5. Fluo-4-stained 3D7 parasite culture showing merozoites attempting to invade in the presence of R1 peptide (variable speed). The echinocytotic erythrocyte had not recovered after ~20 min of recording. Video 6. CytD-treated 3D7 merozoite attempting to invade the Fluo-4 labelled erythrocyte (variable speed). The punctate apical calcium was visible but the calcium influx was difficult to observe. The echinocytotic erythrocyte had not recovered after ~20 min of recording.