School of Geography - Theses
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ItemFarmers’ responses to non-chemical-fertilizer-utilization policy in the source region of the middle route of the South-to-North Water Transfer project( 2019)The water shortage is a major issue to constrict the development of North China, especially Beijing. The South-to-North Water Transfer project was constructed to solve this issue, by diverting sufficient water from the southern part of China to North China. One of the water protection policies was issued by the Chinese government is the Non-Chemical-Fertilizer-Utilization Policy. This policy will influence the farmers living in the source regions of the middle route of this hydrological project. The aims of this thesis are to investigate the response of these farmers in their daily lives and to understand how the local farmers arrive at the final consequences in this instance. Three questions are proposed: 1) How will those farmers respond to this non-chemical-fertilizer-utilization policy? 2) What are the impacts of this policy? 3) What does the factor influence their responses? This thesis applied plenty of interdisciplinary theories to explain the farmers’ responses comprehensively, mainly from two perspectives the attitude and behavior of them. The research questions are solved by analyzing the data collected from a case study located in the source region. The main research methods used in this thesis are semi-structured interviews and questionnaire surveys, supplied by the direct observation in fieldwork and the secondary source from the internet. The findings state that the responses of farmers towards the policy are various, three main responses are detected, the resistance, the conformity, and the anti-compliance. Even though they hold different attitudes, the ultimate consequence of behavior is the same. No one obeys the policy. The thesis finds there is a change in the implementation of the policy, consequently, the results of the responses in the two phases are different. The finding concludes the changes in the agriculture structure in this village. The thesis also reveals the main factors influencing the response of farmers, and they are economically rational individuals.
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ItemAnalysing climate-forced urbanisation in Mongolia( 2019)By 2030, two thirds of humanity is likely to live in urban areas. In many nations such as Mongolia, rapid urbanisation can be associated with development challenges where many people live with limited access to adequate urban infrastructure and services. There are many drivers of urbanisation in Mongolia. One of these drivers is thought to be a cold-climate disaster (dzud), that causes mass livestock fatality and consequent rural-urban migration, when nomadic herders are thought to seek alternative opportunities in urban centres such as the overcrowded capital city, Ulaanbaatar. As a result the city’s urban footprint is thought to spatially expand. The dynamics of this coupled human-physical system are not well understood. This project used mixed-methods, conducting qualitative and quantitative analyses of urban expansion in Ulaanbaatar. It used supervised classification on a 30-year time series of satellite images to measure the rate of change in urban areas from 1989-2019. To gather an understanding of the context of this phenomenon the spatial findings were compared with the opinions expressed in 26 semi-structured interviews with urban management experts in Mongolia to analyse the potential relationship between dzud and the rate of urban expansion. The findings may carry implications for the management of urbanisation in Mongolia, while enhancing our understanding of human-environment relations more broadly.
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ItemThe drivers of hourly-scale surface changes on shore platforms( 2017)Subaerial weathering is a key process in the formation of shore platforms, with downwearing dominating the semi-horizontal intertidal rock surfaces. Over decadal to millennial scales this downwearing lowers platforms to mean low water spring tide elevations. On daily to hourly timescales, however, swelling at micro-scale (
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ItemWave energy transformations over Type-B shore platforms with beaches( 2016)The evolution of rock coasts is driven by the erosional power of wave energy. Type-B shore platforms provide a morphologically unique environment for wave energy transformation between gravity and infragravity frequencies. All previous studies of wave dynamics over Type -B shore platforms have taken place on platforms with a vertical cliff at their rear, while platforms backed by beaches having been overlooked despite their prevalence. The Caves shore platform on Cape Paterson, Victoria, Australia, provides an ideal case study to examine how wave energy changes over Type-B shore platforms backed by dissipative beaches. The platform itself is 180 m wide with a 0.7 degree slope and experiences an average tidal range of 1.8 m. Over the course of 12 months, wave probes (benthic pressure sensors) were deployed at regular intervals over the platform's surface, capturing incident wave conditions ranging from low (offshore wave heights = 1.5 m) to high intensity (heights = 3.5m). This study investigates the effect of platform morphology, offshore wave height and on-platform water depths as limiting factors for energy transformation. Wave energy attenuation and transformation at The Caves was found to be moderated both spatially and temporally, with a strong relationship existing between tidal height and on-platform wave energy. Wave heights and energy spectra differ markedly between the platform's seaward edge and beach toe due to morphological forcing of wave conditions over the platform's width. Infragravity wave energy was found to be dampened in the nearshore environment (up to a 30% reduction in energy signal compared to previous studies) due to beach face causing dissipation of wave energy. The specific energy transformation between gravity and infragravity frequencies were also modulated, but the dominance of infragravity wave energy over the platform's width suggests transformation is occurring in the sub-tidal zone.
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ItemRethinking risk on rocky coasts: moving towards integrated physical and social hazard analysis( 2015)Rocky coasts are hazardous environments accounting for 19% of all coastal drowning fatalities in Australia from 2004 - 2014 (Surf Life Saving Australia, 2014). In most cases, drowning fatalities are thought to result from waves washing over platforms, which sweep unsuspecting victims into the sea. Morphological elements of the shoreline, namely platform elevation, the slope of platforms, and the depth of water off the seaward edge, have been shown to be key elements for understanding the likelihood of wave overtopping: termed Morphological Exposure (Me) (Kennedy et al., 2013). However, little is known about what features of the rocky coast are perceived as being hazardous. This gap is an obstacle to understanding complex behavior in human-environmental systems as well as the interactions between humans with place, which are more complex than physical assessments are able to capture. The focus of this project is to address this gap by integrating the physical risk of wave overtopping (Me) and socially perceived risk with the aim of generating a holistic understanding of hazards on shore platforms. This can be used to promote safe decision making and behavior in risky situations and reduce the likelihood of drowning fatalities on rocky coasts. Perceived risk data was collected via an online self-completion questionnaire from Surf Life Saving Australia (SLSA) volunteers. SLSA was chosen by virtue of its direct experience with the hazards under investigation. This experience permits communication of site-specific expertise on risk, in addition to an acute understanding of capabilities in the context of risk on rocky coasts. All SLSA volunteers whose surf club is within 1km of a rocky coast in Victoria, Australia received the questionnaire. Mixed methods are used to generate data from competing epistemological and ontological assumptions of risk. The aim is to compare and analyse if physical and social risk possess similar trends in rating the threat of drowning risk. Three geotagged photos of varying platform morphologies were taken and assigned a physical risk value (Me) using airborne LiDAR. Respondents were experienced lifesavers, with 33% having been a lifesaver for >15 years and only 5% < 1 year. SLSA volunteers used a Likert scale to rate the perceived risk in each photo. Results show there is a statistical difference between perceived risk ratings among the geotagged photos, showing changes in risk perceptions between contexts. Me and risk perception ratings are on different risk scales, however, their magnitude ratings of the threat of drowning follows a similar pattern. Additionally, each respondent identified specific hazards in each photo. The most frequent hazard (29% of all responses) identified was slipping. Upon further investigation, slipping hazards are perceived as the greatest risk on shore platforms, particularly when waves are not breaking on platforms. In addition to Me, slipping can be used as a proxy for quantifying and communicating site-specific risk in hazardous rocky coast environments. This project contributes new risk knowledge to the development of a rocky coast hazard framework and demonstrates a methodology for improved understanding of complex human-environmental interactions through integrating physical and social measures of risk.
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ItemFish responses to enhanced instream detritus: using ecological theory to inform stream restoration( 2018)There is extensive effort put into restoring the condition of degraded streams. Many times, the aim of these projects is to bolster fish populations. One common method of restoration is the placement of structures, like wood and boulders, into streams. This relies on the assumption that when these structures are placed in the stream, fish will arrive and use them, which will increase their abundance. However, providing this structure may not overcome constraints on fish populations, and thus they will not recover. Firstly, there may be constraints on dispersal - fish cannot reach restored sites. Secondly, there may be biological constraints - the restored sites are still lacking some resource that the fish require, such as food or shelter. Thirdly, there may be environmental constraints - the environmental conditions at restored sites may be unsuitable, for example too hot or too cold. In this project, I investigated the constraints on fish distributions in Hughes Creek, a degraded stream in south-east Victoria. There is a history of erosion in the catchment surrounding the creek, and as a result, much of the natural instream structure has been smothered by sand. To investigate the biotic constraints on fish in the creek, I increased the amount of detritus in the creek, theoretically providing food and cover for fish. To do this, I placed pairs of wooden garden stakes in the stream. The stakes effectively trapped passing detritus, which locally increased detrital loads and invertebrate density. Fish responded to enhanced retention of detritus over the course of a year. More blackfish, pygmy perch and mountain galaxias were caught at sites with more detritus. The nature of this response suggests that fish are limited by biotic constraints in the stream. The collections of detritus around pairs of stakes provide shelter from predators and from flowing water, both important resources for fish. The body condition of fish did not increase at treatment sites, even though invertebrate density was higher. As invertebrates are important food for fish, this suggests that fish are not constrained by the amount of food in Hughes Creek. This positive response of fish, however, was contingent on the time of year, the life-stage of individuals, the age of the treatments and the broader stream conditions. Thus, fish distributions in Hughes Creek are further limited by their dispersal ability and the availability of other types of structure, like large wood. The complexity of these results highlights the importance of understanding the ecological constraints on a fish community before attempting to undertake restoration.
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ItemJust like it?: Preferences of Chinese provincial governments in promoting foreign direct investment( 2015)Foreign Direct Investment brings not only money but also market, advanced technology and managerial experience to host countries, which leads governments competing to attract this investment. This thesis aims at examining priorities and intentions of two provincial governments-- Guangdong and Jiangsu-- in promoting FDI from 2003 to 2014 against the background of policy framework made by the central government in China. To this end, documents published by the central and two provincial governments are collected for the purpose of calculating proportions of documents regarding FDI on the theme of industries, types of firms and regional distribution, and analysing the discourse in the government documents. Results show that all of three governments viewed promoting FDI flowing into particular industries as a priority, though some variation in detailed preferences appears between these government. For the central government, regional distributions of FDI are also frequently mentioned; in contrast, Guangdong government propels for attracting FDI with specific types of firms. In terms of specific themes, industrial restructuring seems to sustain high priorities of FDI in industries. As for regional distribution of FDI, provincial governments focus on regional differential development rather than regional coordinated development. Besides industrial and regional attributes, only Guangdong government prioritize FDI with specific types of firms for improving the quality of foreign enterprises in its jurisdiction. Overall, this study shows that two provincial governments endeavour to maximize their benefits while playing within the boundary set by the central government. Investigating how two provincial governments prioritize three attributes of FDI in promoting FDI contribute to the central-local relations in China. Besides contributing to the central-local relations from the perspective of promotion of FDI, this study also provides insights to see provincial governments' priorities and intentions in attracting FDI by analysing the content of documents.
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ItemRestructuring restoration: comparing CPOM retention rates of in-stream structures in Victorian headwater streams( 2016)Allochthonous CPOM (detritus from riparian vegetation) is an important resource in stream systems, providing habitat and food for aquatic fauna. Increasing a stream's ability to trap CPOM (i.e. retentive capacity) is, therefore, a common goal for river restoration projects. Increasing retentive capacity is one of several ecological benefits of returning large woody debris (LWD) to streams, a process known as re-snagging. Over the past 50 years, river managers have focused on re-snagging and riparian revegetation as principal stream restoration techniques. However, re-snagging can be expensive, time-consuming and labour-intensive. Other instream structures such as macrophytes, debris dams, backwaters and rocks have rarely been studied in terms of their retentive capacities and so it is unclear whether LWD traps more CPOM than these alternative structures. This study examines the effectiveness of seven alternative structures at retaining CPOM, and whether they might be used to improve retentive capacity. I hypothesised that in-stream structures with large size, high structural complexity and substantial hydraulic obstruction would significantly contribute to overall CPOM retention in headwater streams in central Victoria. I compared CPOM retention rates between retention structures across 17 sites in four headwater streams in the Strathbogie Ranges. I identified a significant positive correlation (P < 0.05) and a potential threshold relationship between geomorphic roughness (measured using Manning's n values) and CPOM retention whereby retention rates increased exponentially when Manning's n values increased above 0.09. Backward stepwise multiple regression analysis revealed four retention structures that contributed significantly to CPOM retention: LWD, debris dams, backwaters and Multiple structures. The disadvantages of using LWD in stream restoration projects have been well-studied in the freshwater ecology literature, whereas backwaters and Multiple structures have not been wellresearched with reference to their retentive capacities. However, restoration practices that focus on debris dam initiation and construction may complement current re-snagging efforts and provide a cost-effective alternative for stream managers.
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ItemAlternative community states in reservoirs of the Central Highlands region( 2001)The occurrence of nuisance algae within reservoirs of the Central Highlands region is a problem facing Central Highlands Water and the communities they serve. Therefore, there is a need to know how to manage this threat. Management of the causal factors contributing to the development of algal blooms within the Central Highlands region, and Victoria as a whole, has tended to focus on reducing nutrient loads into the system. However, in shallow lakes nutrient control alone is often ineffective in managing the undesirable effects of eutrophication including algal blooms. The main reason for this is thought to be due to existence of alternative clear, macrophyte-dominated and turbid, phytoplankton-dominated stable states in shallow freshwater systems. This thesis presents analyses of two field studies carried out to investigate the alternative stable states hypothesis on shallow reservoirs of the Central Highlands region. First an assessment of spatial variation in chlorophyll a, macrophyte abundance and key growth regulating variables has shown that within reservoir spatial variation that is often assumed to be insignificant, is significant. Such spatial variation can lead to different conclusions being drawn regarding the application of ecological models and processes that may have caused observed patterns. Consequently, an appreciation of the effects of scale is vital to ensure ecological models, such as the theory of alternative stable states, are applied correctly and the outcomes of field experiments are not confounded by spatial variation. Second an investigation of shallow reservoirs of the Central Highlands region revealed that the presence of macrophytes is associated with low algal biomass. Parallels were drawn between study sites and the model of phase changes of shallow lakes undergoing eutrophication (Moss et al., 1996). A majority of reservoirs were characterised as potentially being within the clear, macrophyte-dominated alternative state, either in the unique clear Phase I or transitional Phase n. However, several reservoirs of the Central Highlands region did not bear a resemblance to any of the alternative states (phases) identified in the literature. Accordingly, it can be concluded that reservoirs of the Central Highlands region may support alternative states but that phase changes used to describe communities of the Northern Hemisphere lakes need to be modified to suit Australian conditions. This study emphasises the need to adopt a holistic approach to managing the undesirable effect of eutrophication such as algal blooms. Within the Central Highlands region a holistic approach should include management of the macrophyte communities, water level manipulation and potentially biomanipulation in addition to nutrient control.
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ItemIdentifying the real monetary cost of Eildon's water( 1999)In order to understand the real monetary cost of water supply from an impoundment like Eildon Dam there needs to be clear definition of the various costs and benefits associated with it's supply. Some costs, relate to downstream environmental impacts and are difficult to define whilst some benefits like recreational benefits are deemed "non marketable" and are not normally accounted for. This study attempted to explore the different costs and benefits associated with Eildon's water over various time periods, and analyse key cost benefit factors asset value and recreational costs and benefits. An attempt was made to investigate the real monetary cost of Eildon's water and also determine the feasibility of charges being set for recreational use. Review of the costs of Eildon's water revealed that prior to 1994 only maintenance and operational costs had been covered by water tariffs and currently full environmental and recreational costs were not being charged. The real monetary cost of Eildon's water was found to be $3.12/ML and the value of recreation was found via the Travel Cost method to be worth $8.73million / annum although it is important to recognise that their are many non marketable recreational benefits like social and community benefits that make the lake far more valuable than just this. The study concluded that recreational users should pay for their use of Lake Eildon based on the user pays system, with charges weighted towards high impact users like water skiers. It was felt that a charge of $10 per day was affordable by water skiers and would not restrict this activity.