School of Geography - Theses
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ItemSustainable microfinance and poverty alleviation : understandings of small farmers in rural Nepal( 2006)Microfinance, as a tool for rural development, is one of the most important sectors of financial services for the rural poor in the developing countries. However, a high credit default rate is a worldwide problem that is particularly pronounced in the developing countries. Credit providers in developing countries have generally experienced serious financial problems since the late 1970s due to a constant high credit default rate and consequent loss on loans. Microfinance for the poor is one of the major grassroots initiatives in rural development in Nepal. However, the high credit default rate amongst small farmers has seriously questioned the small farmers' sense of ownership and commitment towards the sustainability of microfinance institutions at the local level. Institutional sustainability of a microfinance institution is heavily dependent on the repayment rate of loans, but the actual repayment of loans largely depends on how the small farmers understand and engage with institutional credit. Very little research has been conducted into the views of the supposed beneficiaries of microfinance schemes, that is, the small farmers. This thesis, based on extensive field research amongst the small farmers of the Chitwan district of Nepal, examines and documents their understandings of credit, what sustainable microfinance means to them, why there is a high rate of loan defaults (on average more than 60%), and other related issues. My research revealed that the small farmer-managed microfinance institutions were not able to achieve the required repayment rate level due to the imposition of a local bureaucratic framework dominated by internal social differences and with totally different expectations between lenders and borrowers. The results indicate that the understandings of the terms `credit' and `sustainability' differ substantially between the loaning institutions and small farmers. This thesis argues that the divergence in views, interests, and perspectives between bankers and policymakers on the one hand, and the small farmers on the other, explains why microfinance programs will continue to struggle to fulfil their mission of poverty alleviation and sustainability. The study reveals that low incomes amongst small farmers and their understandings about credit are the key factors responsible for high credit default. In conclusion, the findings in this study demonstrate that unless governments and lending institutions understand how small farmers interpret the terms `credit' and `sustainability' there will be no mutually favourable outcomes. Providing small farmers `credit' without other inputs such as training and education, infrastructure and support services, marketing facilities and an appropriate pricing policy simply burdens them with increasing debt. The findings from this study will help the government and lending institutions in understanding better the views held by small farmers, and will hence ensure more effective delivery of credit to the poor and others in need of financial services in rural Nepal.
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ItemThe resistance of herbaceous vegetation to erosion: implications for stream form( 2006)Vegetation growing on the banks of a stream channel influences geomorphological processes operating in that channel. A large body of research has investigated the role of vegetation in controlling the erosion of stream channels, but the majority of this research has considered riparian trees and other woody vegetation. Consequently, our understanding of the influence of herbaceous vegetation on channel erosion is limited. The overall aim of this thesis was to address this knowledge gap by establishing the resistance to erosion of herbaceous vegetation in terms of shear stress and the length of time (duration) of exposure to shear stress, then comparing it to the shear stress and duration of exposure that occur in a number of streams in Victoria, Australia. The study focuses on the influence of herbaceous vegetation on the fluvial entrainment of sediment from horizontal surfaces. Horizontal surfaces are a particular subset of geomorphological features that occur in alluvial streams that include bars and benches. The erosion resistance of herbaceous vegetation directly sampled from horizontal surfaces in streams was estimated using a custom-built laboratory flume that generated very high bed shear stresses. The influence of stem length and substrate size on erosion resistance was tested in the flume study: mature herbaceous vegetation with long stems withstood high levels of shear stress for several days of continuous exposure. Erosion resistance was found to be inversely related to substrate size and positively related to stem length. The maximum erosion resistance of herbaceous vegetation in the flume study was greater than values reported in the literature for herbaceous vegetation growing in artificial drainage channels and on hillslopes. The shear stress exerted in stream channels is often estimated using methods based on cross-sectional average hydraulic conditions. Comparison of cross-sectional mean shear stress and the local shear stress exerted on horizontal surfaces estimated at six study sites in Victoria using high-resolution two-dimensional hydraulic modelling indicated that the erosion of horizontal surfaces is unlikely to be accurately predicted by mean shear stress. It is also possible that mean shear stress will not accurately predict the erosion of other sub-cross-section-scale geomorphological features. The frequency of erosion of horizontal surfaces covered with herbaceous vegetation was estimated at the study sites using erosion prediction analyses that combined the erosion resistance data from the flume study, estimates of local shear stress and exposure duration of horizontal surfaces at the study sites. The exposure duration was estimated by analysing the long-term sub-daily discharge records. The erosion prediction analyses indicated that mature herbaceous vegetation had sufficient resistance to erosion to withstand the shear stress and exposure duration at all study sites, and consequently would not be eroded. Immature herbaceous vegetation, however, would be eroded at all study sites; the frequency of erosion varied and was dependent on the stem length. The erosion prediction analysis method was applied to investigate the variation in the effectiveness of herbaceous vegetation in stabilising horizontal surfaces at the catchment-scale. Although the results were not conclusive, it appears that the influence of herbaceous vegetation is greatest in the upper catchment, which contrasts with previous research that identified a mid-catchment peak in fluvial entrainment of bank material. The duration of exposure to inundation is likely to be the main driver of herbaceous vegetation degradation in the lower catchment, as hydrograph attenuation leads to long duration events that cause oxygen deprivation stress on the herbaceous vegetation. A number of conceptual models of the temporal variation in erosion resistance of horizontal surfaces for different management scenarios were developed. Further data on the influence of vegetation other than herbaceous vegetation on the erosion resistance of horizontal surface are required, but based on the outcomes of the thesis and previous research it is clear that stream restoration designs that aim to increase channel stability with woody vegetation should be carefully considered. It is possible that rather than stabilising the channel, the impact of the maturing woody vegetation on the herbaceous vegetation understorey will lead to a reduction in overall stability.
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ItemAdaptive capacity and climate change: a case study of the farming community in Urana Shire, NSW( 2006)This thesis assesses the adaptive capacity of a group of Australian farmers to climate change. A framework is developed for the purpose of identifying factors that contribute to the adaptive capacity of farmers. This framework considers six basic rural livelihood assets, capabilities and resources common to all farm households: individual, labour, information, natural, farm equipment and financial; and the factors that influence farmers' access to each asset. The framework is employed in a regional scale participatory research study of the farming community in Urana Shire, NSW, Australia. The thesis identifies key factors which influence the adaptive capacity of Urana Shire farmers. (However it does not measure their influence). It is a pilot study, which provides the foundations for further research on the adaptive capacity of farmers from Urana Shire and other agricultural regions in Australia. Farmers' perception of risk associated with climate change is identified as an important factor which influences their capacity to adapt to climate change. Significant discrepancies are revealed between the observations and predictions of local climate change made by farmers, and the documented and projected local climate change provided by Australian climate science groups. While farmers interviewed in this study demonstrate a capacity to respond to increased rainfall and seasonal variability, they do not respond to rises in temperature or atmospheric CO2 concentrations. Other factors seen to influence the climate-related adaptive capacity of these farmers include: the formal education of all household members, availability of skilled labour, OH&S regulations, partnerships in farming, involvement with professional organisations, methods of accessing information, available water resources, access to technology, farm size, business management training, management of economic markets and diversity in income sources. These factors reveal potential avenues for capacity building.
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ItemAnalyzing post-tsunami livelihoods recovery: the case of masons in Polhena village, Sri Lanka( 2006)This study investigates the livelihoods recovery process of masons living in Polhena village, Sri Lanka in the aftermath of the 2004 Asian tsunami. The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework, as developed by the United Kingdom's Department for International Development, has been used as an analytical device. A two stage qualitative investigation was undertaken. The first stage comprised the fieldwork component of the project wherein insights of 20 masons, three government officials, and three non-governmental organizations were solicited to unveil the recovery experiences of masons, in the context of post-tsunami policies and livelihoods assistance schemes. In the second stage, the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework was deployed to review outcomes from the above inquest and thereby examine its usefulness in analyzing post-tsunami livelihoods recovery of masons. Despite some practical complexities and limitations, the framework's demeanour as a systematic analysis of poverty, and its causes, in a way that is holistic was found to be of immense value for a post-tsunami livelihoods recovery analysis. In the broader sense of building `sustainability' into Sri Lanka's post-tsunami recovery agenda, it was shown that the applicability of the framework was limited, due to the challenges posed by the country's pre-existing economic and socio-political conditions.
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ItemThe morphodynamics of shore platform beaches( 2006)The morphodynamics of shore platform beaches near Apollo Bay, Victoria, were examined, to determine their response to changing wave energy conditions and influence on shore platform development. Three specific research questions were posed. 1. What is the morphological form of platform beaches in relation to different offshore wave energy conditions? 2. What influence does shore platform morphology have on how much offshore wave energy reaches the beach? 3. Do the models of Trenhaile (2004) and Wright and Short (1984) accurately represent the morphodynamics of shore platform beaches? Beach morphological change was determined by surveying of cross-shore beach profiles at two study sites over a four month period (22 March-19 July 2006), profiles were then compared to offshore wave data for this period. The modification of waves by the shore platform was measured by recording of waves across the platforms. Results showed that changes in beach profile form, width and gradient were minimal throughout the study. Beach morphology did vary to a degree during high-energy offshore wave conditions via erosion and accretion of the beachface. Recorded wave energy dissipation from offshore to the beach toe was high, and depth of water on the platform found to be a major controller of platform wave height. Depth of water on the platform was, in turn, controlled by platform elevation, offshore waves, and tides. The shore platform beach model of Trenhaile (2004) was shown to not accurately predict platform beach morphodynamics in microtidal environments. Wright and Short's (1984) model, specifically the dimensionless parameter, fl (Eq. 1.1) was found to correctly predict beach state, when data of waves already on the platform was used, and was incorrect when offshore wave data was used in its calculation. Beach morphodynamics were found to be largely controlled by platform morphology, specifically the elevation. Relating to this, platform beach morphodynamics are controlled by highmagnitude low-frequency wave conditions, low-energy conditions have little impact on these beaches. These beaches are characterized by low variability due to low sediment availability and the dissipation of offshore waves by the platform. To determine the relative susceptibility of these beaches to offshore waves, a shore platform energy window index, `lisp (Eq. 4.2), was developed by modifying the reef energy window index, 'I/ (Eq. 1.3) of Kench and Brander (2005). Further to this, a conceptual model of platform beach morphodynamics was created (Fig. 4.6), which demonstrates the main factors influencing beach morphology.