School of Earth Sciences - Theses
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ItemEnvironmental fate and transport of TNT in soil at the former explosives factory Maribyrnong( 2002)Highly toxic explosives compounds can potentially contaminate soil and groundwater and pose extended environmental hazard due to their persistence. Explosives contamination within soils was investigated at the former Explosives Factory at Maribyrnong (EFM), by sampling and spectrophotometric / HPLC analysis. The environmental fate and transport of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) was assessed via batch and microcosm testing to quantify the influence of key subsurface sinks, adsorption, and transformation, and hence evaluate natural attenuation as a remediation option. A five tonne crystalline TNT source zone was delineated within soils at the base of a TNT process waste lagoon. This source was found to be supplying aqueous TNT loading to subsurface soils and groundwater, with the resultant plume localised to the shallow clay sequence due to a combination of natural attenuation processes and hydrogeological constraints. Freundlich described sorptive partitioning was found to be the main TNT sink at EFM (KF= 29 mL/g), while transformation rates were moderate (3.86 x 10-4 hr-1) due to aerobic conditions, and TNT toxicity inhibiting microbial degradation. Slow groundwater migration toward the Maribyrnong River (0.7 m/yr) and upward hydraulic gradients within underlying sand and gravel aquifers serve to increase TNT residence time within the clay aquitard, leading to increased interaction with adsorptive substrates and microbes and/or elements of the soil matrix responsible for aerobic transformation. Remediation of the contaminated lagoon may involve removal and treatment/landfilling of the top 1m of soil, then refilling with an impermeable capping allowing ongoing natural attenuation of residual TNT at depth via anaerobic degradation and sorption.
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ItemAustralian Neoproterozoic glaciation: a study of the Sturtian glacial deposits in the Arkaroola region, Northern Flinders Ranges South Australia( 2005)The late Proterozoic Sturtian glacigenic succession exposed in the Arkaroola region of the Northern Flinders Ranges record the earliest of two global Neoproterozoic `Snowball' glacial events in the Adelaide Geosyncline, South Australia. Two stratigraphically disparate glacigenic units were recognised in the late Sturtian succession in the Arkaroola region, a subaerially deposited glacial till - the Merinjina Tillite, and an unclassified glaciomarine diamict unit. The Merinjina Tillite unit preserves a five-fold lithostratigraphy, hosting englacial melt-out deposits, glaciolacustrinal sediments and dominated by a massive to poorly-bedded tillite unit deposited directly from glacier ice. The glaciomarine diamictite preserves down-slope mass-flow deposits, as well as turbidite sequences, slumping and sediments from glacial fall-out including dropstones embedded in laminated muddy-shale and is interpreted as a basin-margin marine deposit. Palaeocurrent analyses across the Northern Flinders Ranges and stratigraphic reviews of analogous Sturtian glacigenic deposits elsewhere in the Northern Flinders Zone suggest palaeotidal influence from the north-north-west and indicate a north-north-west-sloping basin margin in the Northern Flinders Zone. Two major palaeoclimatic phases were recognised in glacigenic rocks the Arkaroola region. A glacial advance phase is represented by the advance of continental glacial sediments, across a topographically-elevated, subaerial surface and extending down-slope into a submarine basin. The other, represented regionally by dropstone shales, is interpreted as glacial retreat and the termination of Sturtian `Snowball Earth' conditions. A rise in palaeo-atmospheric temperatures is inferred, causing melting of continental and marine ice-sheets and resulting in a regionally-extensive marine transgression. The slight increase in water temperature during glacial retreat is believed to have triggered carbonate precipitation and the ultimate deposition of cap dolomites which overly the glacigenic sediments across the Adelaide Geosyncline.
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ItemThe geochronology and thermochronology of the Brockman Creek 01, Melita 01 and Melita 02 kimberlites, Western Australia( 2000-10)Due to the difficulties inherent in dating kimberlites, two independent methods are employed to confirm the unusually old ages of approximately 2 Ga for three occurrences in Western Australia. Phlogopite micas from three kimberlites were dated using 40Ar/39Ar and 87Rb/86Sr dating techniques in order to provide an estimate of the intrusion ages. The high reliability of the age estimates is indicated by the similar results produced by the 87Rb/86Sr method. Argon loss is suspected for phlogopite samples, resulting in the apparently reliable 40Ar/39Ar total fusion ages that do not correspond to previously determined emplacement ages. (For complete abstract open document)
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ItemThe potential for natural attenuation of petroleum hydrocarbons in groundwater: Shell Newport Terminal, Victoria( 2000-10)Groundwater in the fractured and jointed Quaternary Newer Volcanics basaltic aquifer system beneath the Shell Newport Terminal has been contaminated by petroleum hydrocarbons. This petroleum hydrocarbon contamination has resulted from a number of different spill incidents over the terminal's long operation. Petroleum hydrocarbon contamination has led to the formation of a light nonaqueous phase liquid (LNAPL) floating on the water table. Associated dissolved and vapour phases have also developed within the basaltic aquifer. The effectiveness of natural attenuation processes to remediate the petroleum hydrocarbon contamination has been evaluated based on the gas chromatography / mass spectroscopy analysis of LNAPL samples and changes in groundwater geochemistry. Three distinct LNAPL plumes were identified within the Shell Newport Terminal jet facility plume (kerosene source); off-site plume along High 8t (mixed source of leaded petrol, kerosene, and diesel); and black oil fuel gantry plume, which is migrating off-site to Digman Reserve (mixed source of leaded petrol, shell sol A, and diesel). LNAPL ratio analysis revealed only that the samples were degraded compared to their estimated source composition. Further interpretation of ratios was difficult due to constraints involved in source compositions, sampling limitations, heterogeneity of the groundwater system, and high transport velocities of the groundwater compared to LNAPL migration. (For complete abstract open document)
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ItemHydrogeology of the newer volcanic basalt aquifer at the Shell Terminal Newport Victoria( 2000-10)The Shell Terminal at Newport, Victoria and adjacent areas have been intensively used as terminals for large petroleum companies (BP,Ampol,Caltex, Mobil and Shell) for many years. As a consequence the groundwater is contaminated with light non-aquaeous phase liquids (LNAPLs) and an associated dissolved phase.
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ItemGeologic and geomorphic applications of Aster satellite imagery, northern Flinders Ranges, South Australia( 2002)Multispectal ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer) satellite data has been evaluated for geologic and geomorphic interpretations within the northern Flinders Ranges, South Australia. ASTER is a new remote sensing imaging system on board NASA’s Terra satellite, launched in December, 1999. ASTER measures the reflectance of the Earth’s surface within 14 bandwidths of the visible, near infrared, short wave infrared and thermal infrared sections of the electromagnetic spectrum, with a minimum spatial resolution of 15 m. ASTER has the ability to produce digital elevation models (DEM), important for understanding the dynamics of the landscape by draping false colour images over topography. The northern Flinders Ranges is one of the most diverse geological settings on the Australian continent, making it an ideal ‘test site’ to demonstrate the capabilities of the ASTER instrument. The area contains a range of geology from Precambrian basement to Quaternary desert landforms. The ability of ASTER Level 1B data to discriminate between the large range of lithologies is assessed. Geomorphic interpretations made from exploiting the high resolution ASTER data and DEM has revealed a significant record of post Pliocene landscape development, attributed to a combination of climatic and tectonic factors. Such features as incision morphology and the identification of palaeodrainages have enabled constraints to be placed on the Quaternary degradational and aggradational events. For example, estimates of Quaternary sediment flux rates in some areas of the study area are essentially extracted from ASTER DEM data. ASTER has persisted to be extremely useful in the study of aeolian landform morphology in regions surrounding the northern Flinders Ranges. The short wave infrared has proved useful for identifying areas of high surface moisture, directly relating to the depth to water table. The application of principal component analysis to ASTER short wave infrared data is used to accurately identify specific mineralogical character.
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ItemThe stratigraphy and palaeontology of Cape Vani, Milos, Greece( 2005)Milos, dominated by Pliocene-Recent explosive calc-alkaline volcanics, is in the active Aegean Arc. This project investigated the microfauna and depositional environment of a sequence associated with the only terrestrial white smoker field in the world. White smokers occur in a volcaniclastic-hosted Mn-Fe-Ba deposit in a 1 km2 rift basin associated with dacite intrusives. Although the sediments are extensively hydrothermally altered, they have sedimentary structures and yield a variety of micro- and macrofossils. The typical microfaunal assemblage comprises Miliolinids (e.g. Quinqueloculina spp.; Triloculina spp.) and Elphidiids (Elphidium spp.). In the absence of any planktonic foraminifera, this assemblage is typical of inner shelf palaeodepths from around 10-50m. The occurrence of this fauna with echinoderm spines indicates an open marine setting with normal salinity levels. The associated coarse-grained burrowed facies with symmetrical ripples and hummocky cross stratification and a macrofauna of molluscs (e.g. pectinids, Mytilus, fish teeth) further indicates a shallow marine setting. Terrestrial artiodactyl megafauna occur at three levels in tuff and trough cross-laminated fluvial deposits suggesting close proximity to a regressive shoreline. Macrofauna were probably killed by tephra, rapidly disarticulated and removed into a shallow marine environment. The sequence is unconformably overlain by coarse-grained alluvial fan to braided river deposits deposited when Milos became emergent. Barite-silica white smokers derive from the ingress of and leaching by seawater into basement and overlying volcanics. Palaeontological-boiling data shows the fluid was at 165-140°C and the extremophile echinoderm spicule microfauna dominated because forams were unable to live in warm silica-laden turgid fluids with a high heavy metal content.
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ItemThe Mine Creek region, Eyre Peninsula, South Australia: a structural analysis of the Kalinjala Shear Zone( 2000)Mine Creek, located in the Eastern Eyre Peninsula, South Australia, exposes a natural cross section through the Kalinjala Shear Zone where it juxtaposes a sequence of granulite facies metasediments to the west from upper amphibolite granite gneisses to the east. The lithologies include biotite-garnet schists, forsteritic marbles, biotite-hornblende amphibolite, banded iron formation and quartz +feldspar +biotite +hornblende ± garnet megacrystic granite gneisses. These rocks preserve evidence of at least two deformation events. D1 formed a layer- parallel S1 foliation defined by peak garnet +biotite +quartz +feldspar assemblages, with no recognised folding. Associated with this deformation was the initiation of the NE-SW oriented, dextral transpressive, Kalinjala Shear Zone, which is up to 3km wide and 300km long. The shear zone is characterised by high-grade assemblages, steeply plunging stretching lineations (L1) and dextral kinematic indicators. The formation of S^C, fabrics, C' shear bands and local ultramylonitic zones indicates intense shearing and high-strain. D2 developed isoclinal F2 folds and a localised NE-SW orientated S2 axial planar cleavage, that was not pervasive. Progressive deformation and retrogression and subsequent tectonic reworking has created a highly recrystallised and structurally complex environment. A strain analysis of the augen gniess was undertaken using both finite strain methods and by qualitative examination of gneissic fabric intensity. Although finite strain estimation met with limited success, results demonstrate a significant component of flattening was responsible for producing strongly oblate strain markers. Analysis of shear zone fabric development reveals strain insensitive composite fabrics that do not accurately reflect the total amount of strain accommodated by the rock. Instead their oblique orientation, relative to the shear zone boundaries reflects non-coaxial strain and may be used as an important kinematic indicator. Deformation fabric analysis resolves the intensely strained nature of the lithologies of Mine Creek, these are dominated by S^C orthogneiss and layered mylonite fabrics. Low-strain fabric features in the granite gneisses are not preserved.
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ItemSedimentology of the late Neoproterozoic Patsy Springs Canyon, Flinders Ranges, South Australia( 2003)The Neoproterozoic Patsy Springs Canyon is located within the northern portion of the Adelaide Geosyncline, South Australia. The sedimentary structures found within the canyon fill are consistent with a deep marine origin, and include syn-sedimentary marine phosphates, marine cements, sandstones with partial Bouma sequences, abundant mudstones and various mass flow deposit types (including grain flows, debris flows and slumps). Structures indicative of tidal activity (previously interpreted to be of shallow water origin) are interspersed with Bouma sequences and mass flow deposits and are here interpreted as having been produced by deep-water tidal bottom currents. Rare structures resembling hummocky cross stratification are here interpreted as similarly being of deep-water origin. This deep water interpretation for the canyon fill contradicts previous shallow water models and alleviates the need for extraordinary changes in base level, required by such shallow water models. A deep-water submarine origin for the canyon is also more consistent with the lack of canyon-synchronous basin-wide unconformity and is more consistent with an open-ocean palaeogeography. This study has resolved some of the ambiguity surrounding the origin of the Wonoka canyons by providing sedimentological evidence to suggest that they may in fact represent ancient submarine canyons.
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ItemOrigin and formation of Ordovician sedimentary phosphates at Phosphate Hill, Mansfield, southern Australia( 2002)Ordovician sedimentary phosphatic rocks were mined for fertilizer use in the 1920’s from a small, highly deformed belt of Ordovician rocks at Phosphate Hill, near Mansfield (Warburton, 1:250,000 topographical map). The formation of the phosphate and the environmental conditions at the time of its formation have not been previously discussed in detail. It is an example of a sedimentary phosphate deposit that displays the results of both primary phosphogenesis and secondary, reworking processes. The black shale lithologies are host to the primary phosphate formation in the form of concretionary phosphates, derived from the high phosphorous content of bottom waters and the shells of the phyllocarid crustacean Caryocaris. Caryocaris has been misidentified in previous studies and their importance as the dominant bioclast at Phosphate Hill, has not been realised until now. Phosphorous enrichment within the depositional environment resulted from the extremely high organic contents within marine waters, which is illustrated by the bituminous character of some of the black shale lithologies. The depositional environment was relatively low energy, with low sedimentation rates, in isolated and stagnant marine waters. Thin alternating shale and phosphatic sand lithologies were derived from changes in the energy levels of the depositional environment which led to small turbidity currents reworking the concretionary phosphates and forming clastic phosphatic grains. Phosphate Hill has been extensively folded, fractured and faulted, with near-surface exposure resulting in the episodic precipitation of alumino-phosphatic, hydrous mineral phases. Phosphate Hill is compositionally similar to the Cheshunt sedimentary phosphate occurrence in Victoria, reflecting a similarity in environmental conditions within the Ordovician depositional marine environment.