Rural Clinical School - Research Publications
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ItemTrends and Factors Associated with Obesity Prevalence in Rural Australian Adults-Comparative Analysis of the Crossroads Studies in Victoria over 15 Years(MDPI, 2022-11)This study examined the changes in the prevalence of obesity and associated lifestyle factors using data from repeated cross-sectional, self-reported surveys (Crossroads I: 2001-2003 and Crossroads II: 2016-2018, studies) and clinic anthropometric measurements collected from regional and rural towns in the Goulburn Valley, Victoria. Given that past community studies have only focused categorically on dietary intake, or assessed caloric energy intake, we examined the difference in broad dietary practices at two different times. Clinical assessments from randomly selected household participants aged ≥18 years were analyzed. Differences in obesity prevalence were calculated for each individual variable. Logistic regression was used to determine the odds ratios (95% confidence intervals (CI)) with and without adjustment for key lifestyle factors. There were 5258 participants in Crossroads I and 2649 in Crossroads II surveys. Obesity prevalence increased from 28.2% to 30.8% over 15 years, more among those who ate fried food, but decreased significantly among rural dwellers (31.7: 27.0, 36.8% versus 25.1: 22.9, 27.5%) and those who had adequate fruit intake (28.5: 25.0, 32.3% to 23.9: 21.8, 26.2%). Obesity was associated with older age (≥35 years), use of fat-based spreads for bread (adjusted odds ratio, aOR:1.26: 1.07, 1.48) and physical inactivity. The increase in obesity prevalence especially in the rural towns, was associated with unhealthy dietary behaviour which persisted over 15 years. Understanding and addressing the upstream determinants of dietary intake and choices would assist in the development of future health promotion Programs.
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ItemSelf-reported skin cancer-related behaviours in rural Victoria: results from repeat cross-sectional studies in 2001-2003 and 2016-2018.(WILEY, 2022-06)OBJECTIVE: To assess whether self-reported use of sun-protective measures and skin examination have changed between 2001 and 2018 in a rural setting. METHODS: Repeat cross-sectional survey of randomly selected households in four rural Victorian towns. People aged 16 years and older were eligible to participate. Logistic regression was used to identify demographic factors associated with sun-protective measures and skin examination. RESULTS: Overall, 5,328 participated in 2001-2003 and 2,680 in 2016-2018. Among participants who go out in the sun, the mean number of reported sun-protective measures (2.6±1.3 vs. 2.6±1.6, p=0.867) and the proportion of participants reporting usually/always using sun protection (65.1% vs. 63.9%, p=0.307) were unchanged between the two surveys. However, an increased proportion of participants reported avoiding the sun when outdoors in the more recent survey (from 18.8% to 34.3%, p<0.001). Avoiding the sun was associated with being older, female, of European origin and having post-secondary school education. Skin examination rates increased between the two surveys (32.7% to 40.8%, p<0.001). Skin examinations were associated with older age groups, European origin and post-secondary school education and being male. CONCLUSIONS: Given the small changes in sun protection over time, updated skin cancer campaigns are needed to encourage increased sun-protective behaviours and skin examinations among rural residents. IMPLICATIONS FOR PUBLIC HEALTH: Results suggest that updated health promotion campaigns targeted to rural areas are warranted.
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ItemChronic ill health in a regional Victoria setting: A 13-year comparison(WILEY, 2019-12)OBJECTIVE: High-quality data regarding the prevalence of chronic disease in rural areas are essential in understanding the challenges faced by rural populations and for informing strategies to address health care needs. This study compared the prevalence of a range of self-reported chronic conditions and utilisation of GP services and emergency department in a regional Victorian setting between two studies conducted in the same region in 2001-2003 and 2014. DESIGN: Repeat cross-sectional studies conducted over a decade apart. SETTING: The projects were conducted in the Goulburn Valley in regional Victoria. PARTICIPANTS: The earlier study randomly selected households from local government lists. The later study randomly selected householders from the telephone directory. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Participants were asked whether they had been diagnosed with a range of chronic health conditions and how often they had visited a general practitioner or emergency department in the past 12 months. RESULTS: The age-standardised prevalence of depression was higher in the 2014 study than the 2001-2003 study in men (increased by 8.0% (95% CI 4.5, 11.5%)) and women (increased by 13.7% (95% CI 8.4, 19.0%)). Similarly, the prevalence of age-standardised diabetes and hypertension was higher in 2014 than 2001-2003 (men increased by 3.6% (95% CI 0.7, 6.5% (diabetes)) and 13.6% (95% CI 8.6, 18.6% (hypertension)), women increased by 3.1% (95% CI 0.3, 6.5% (diabetes)) and 8.4% (95% CI 2.3, 14.5% (hypertension))). CONCLUSION: The results of this study indicate that the prevalence of self-reported depression, diabetes and hypertension has increased in this regional Victorian area over the past 13 years. The reasons for these observed increases and the subsequent impact on the health care needs of regional communities warrants further investigation.
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ItemCharacteristics of patients who access zero, one or multiple general practices and reasons for their choices: a study in regional Australia(BMC, 2021-01-02)BACKGROUND: Most people in Australia visit a General Practitioner each year and are free to choose their General Practitioner and/or practice on each occasion. A proportion of people visit multiple general practices, which can reduce continuity of care, a core value of general practice. Utilisation of multiple general practices is associated with metropolitan residence and younger age. However, it is unclear which factors are associated with utilisation of multiple general practices in rural areas, where there are often General Practitioner workforce shortages and higher proportions of patients who may benefit from continuity of care, including older people and people living with chronic disease. The aim of this study was to compare the characteristics of people in a rural Australian area who accessed multiple general practices in the previous year with people who had accessed one practice, or none. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey assessed self-reported utilisation and perspective of general practice services, uses of multiple practices, associated reasons, lifestyle advice and screening services received in four regional Victorian towns. Households were randomly selected and residents aged 16+ were eligible to participate in the adult survey. RESULTS: Most people had attended a single general practice (78.9%), while 14.4% attended more than one practice and 6.7% attended no practices in the previous 12 months. Compared with utilisation of a single general practice, multiple general practice attendance in the previous year was associated with younger age (adjusted odds ratio (aOR 95% confidence interval) 0.98 per year (0.97-0.99), residence in the regional centre aOR 2.90(2.22-3.78), emergency department (ED) attendance in the last 12 months aOR 1.65(1.22-2.21) and no out of pocket costs aOR 1.36(1.04-1.79)). Reasons for multiple general practice attendance included availability of appointments, cost and access to specific services. Compared with multiple general practice attendance, those attending single practices reported more screening tests but similar frequency of lifestyle advice. People who accessed multiple practices were less likely to report very high satisfaction (51.7% vs 62.9% p < 0.001) or excellent degree of confidence in their doctor (42.0% vs 49.8% p = 0.006) than single practice attendees. CONCLUSIONS: Those attending single practices report higher satisfaction and confidence in their GP and were less likely to attend ED. Further studies are required to test whether increasing availability of appointments and reducing out-of-pocket expenses would increase single practice attendance and/or decrease healthcare costs overall.
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ItemImpact of renaming NAFLD to MAFLD in an Australian regional cohort: Results from a prospective population-based study(WILEY, 2022-02)BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Clinical and public health implications of the recent redefining of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) to metabolic-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) remain unclear. We sought to determine the prevalence and compare MAFLD with NAFLD in a well-defined cohort. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted in regional Victoria with participants from randomly selected households. Demographic and health-related clinical and laboratory data were obtained. Fatty liver was defined as a fatty liver index ≥ 60 with MAFLD defined according to recent international expert consensus. RESULTS: A total of 722 participants were included. Mean age was 59.3 ± 16 years, and 55.3% were women with a median body mass index of 27.8 kg/m2 . Most (75.2%) participants were overweight or obese. MAFLD was present in 341 participants giving an unadjusted prevalence of 47.2% compared with a NAFLD prevalence of 38.7%. Fifty-nine (17.5%) participants met the criteria of MAFLD but not NAFLD. The increased prevalence of MAFLD in this cohort was primarily driven by dual etiology of fatty liver. All participants classified as NAFLD met the new definition of MAFLD. Compared with NAFLD subjects, participants with MAFLD had higher ALT (26.0 [14.0] U/L vs 30.0 [23] U/L, P = 0.024), but there were no differences in non-invasive markers for steatosis or fibrosis. CONCLUSION: Metabolic-associated fatty liver disease is a highly prevalent condition within this large community cohort. Application of the MAFLD definition increased prevalence of fatty liver disease by including people with dual etiologies of liver disease.
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ItemPatterns of use of oral health care services in Australian rural adults: the Crossroads-II Dental sub-study(WILEY, 2021-12)BACKGROUND: As part of a larger study, the Crossroads-II Dental sub-study determined the patterns of, and barriers to, oral health care service utilization in a rural area of Victoria. METHODS: In this cross-sectional sub-study predisposing, enabling, needs-related, and oral health variables were considered in association with patterns of oral health care utilization. A logistic regression was performed to explain the use of oral health care services. RESULTS: Overall, 574 adults participated, with 50.9% reporting having visited an oral health care service in the previous 12 months. Age, number of chronic health conditions and holding a health card; were associated with increased visit to a dentist (OR = 1.01; 95% CI: 1.00-1.03; OR = 1.08; 95% CI: 1.01-1.16; OR = 2.06; 95% CI: 1.26-3.36, respectively). Perceived barriers to care and number of missing teeth decreased the odds of using services (OR = 0.46; 95% CI: 0.36-0.58; OR = 0.95; 95% CI: 0.92-0.98, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that use of oral health care services is associated with a range of financial, educational, health and structural barriers. Increasing the use of oral health care services in rural populations requires additional efforts beyond the reduction of financial barriers.
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ItemLongitudinal study of health, disease and access to care in rural Victoria: the Crossroads-II study: methods(BIOMED CENTRAL LTD, 2018-05-30)BACKGROUND: High quality, contemporary data regarding patterns of chronic disease is essential for planning by health services, policy makers and local governments, but surprisingly scarce, including in rural Australia. This dearth of data occurs despite the recognition that rural Australians live with high rates of ill health, poor health behaviours and restricted access to health services. Crossroads-II is set in the Goulburn Valley, a rural region of Victoria, Australia 100-300 km north of metropolitan Melbourne. It is primarily an irrigated agricultural area. The aim of the study is to identify changes in the prevalence of key chronic health conditions including the extent of undiagnosed and undermanaged disease, and association with access to care, over a 15 year period. METHODS/DESIGN: This study is a 15 year follow up from the 2000-2003 Crossroads-I study (2376 households participated). Crossroads-II includes a similar face to face household survey of 3600 randomly selected households across four towns of sizes 6300 to 49,800 (50% sampled in the larger town with the remainder sampled equally from the three smaller towns). Self-reported health, health behaviour and health service usage information is verified and supplemented in a nested sub-study of 900 randomly selected adult participants in 'clinics' involving a range of additional questionnaires and biophysical measurements. The study is expected to run from October 2016 to December 2018. DISCUSSION: Besides providing epidemiological and health service utilisation information relating to different diseases and their risk factors in towns of different sizes, the results will be used to develop a composite measure of health service access. The importance of access to health services will be investigated by assessing the correlation of this measure with rates of undiagnosed and undermanaged disease at the mesh block level. Results will be shared with partner organisations to inform service planning and interventions to improve health outcomes for local people.
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ItemPrevalence of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in regional Victoria: a prospective population-based study(WILEY, 2021-07)OBJECTIVES: To investigate the prevalence of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and its risk factors in regional Victoria. DESIGN: Prospective cross-sectional observational study (sub-study to CrossRoads II health study in Shepparton and Mooroopna). SETTING: Four towns (populations, 6300-49 800) in the Goulburn Valley of Victoria. PARTICIPANTS: Randomly selected from households selected from residential address lists provided by local government organisations for participation in the CrossRoads II study. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Age- and sex-adjusted estimates of NAFLD prevalence, defined by a fatty liver index score of 60 or more in people without excessive alcohol intake or viral hepatitis. RESULTS: A total of 705 invited adults completed all required clinical, laboratory and questionnaire evaluations of alcohol use (participation rate, 37%); 392 were women (56%), and their mean age was 59.1 years (SD, 16.1 years). Of the 705 participants, 274 met the fatty liver index criterion for NAFLD (crude prevalence, 38.9%; age- and sex-standardised prevalence, 35.7%). The mean age of participants with NAFLD (61 years; SD, 15 years) was higher than for those without NAFLD (58 years; SD, 16 years); a larger proportion of people with NAFLD were men (50% v 41%). Metabolic risk factors more frequent among participants with NAFLD included obesity (69% v 15%), hypertension (66% v 48%), diabetes (19% v 8%), and dyslipidaemia (63% v 33%). Mean serum alanine aminotransferase levels were higher (29 U/L; SD, 17 U/L v 24 U/L; SD, 14 U/L) and mean median liver stiffness greater (6.5 kPa; SD, 5.6 kPa v 5.3kPa; SD, 2.0 kPa) in participants with NAFLD. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of NAFLD among adults in regional Victoria is high. Metabolic risk factors are more common among people with NAFLD, as are elevated markers of liver injury.