Zoology - Theses
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ItemAn electrophysiological study of muscle in tissue culture(University of Melbourne, 1975)
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ItemThe endocrine control of reproduction in the harlequin bug, dindymus versicolour (herr.-sch) (hemiptera : pyrrhocoridae)(University of Melbourne, 1972)The work presented in this thesis is an attempt to provide further insight into the endocrine factors which initiate and control the development of eggs in the female insect. It was therefore imperative that part of this study was directed towards an understanding of the neuro-endocrine system of the insect studied. One characteristic feature of the reproductive cycle of Dindymus is the prolonged and continuous copulation. Copulation is essential for the initiation of the vitellogenic cycle; interruption of copulation results in a retardation or cessation of vitellogenesis. Consequently, special attention was given to the manner in which copulation influenced the endocrine system.
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ItemEmbryonic diapause in the field cricket Teleogryllus Commodus(University of Melbourne, 1972)The mechanism of control of embryonic diapause in Teleogryllus commodus was investigated by experiments aimed firstly at studying the parental role in diapause determination and secondly, at analysing some of the biochemical changes associated with diapause initiation and termination in the egg. Implantation procedures were used to investigate the possibility that maternal endocrine effects, of the type demonstrated in the silkworm Bombyx mori, operate in Teleogryllus. Endocrine organs were transferred from diapausing T. commodus adult females to adult females of the non-diapausing T.oceanicus species. The organs implanted included the suboesophageal ganglion, brain, corpus cardiacum and corpora allata. The T. oceanicus females were mated with both T. oceanicus and T. commodus males, and the diapause characteristics of the eggs were assessed. The implants were shown to have no positive effect on diapause in the egg. However the experiments did reveal that the T. oceanicus ? x T. commodus ? hybrid has an embryonic diapause. This was contrary to the results of previous hybridization studies with these two species. It was in fact considered generally that diapause is absent in hybrids between diapausing and non-diapausing crickets. The presence of diapause in the T. oceanicus ? x T. commodus ? hybrid was confirmed in an experiment which compared the respiratory rates and morphological development of the hybrid and parent species. A genetical model proposed to fit this result has suggested that diapause in Teleogryllus is controlled by both a cytoplasmic factor produced by the parent female and by factors determined by the embryonic genome. Biochemical investigations were aimed at elucidating the nature of these factors. It was shown that rises in the level of free amino acids associated with proteolytic activity occur at diapause initiation and during diapause development in T. commodus. The rise at diapause initiation was shown to precede water absorption and is likely to be associated with this activity. The occurrence of proteolysis during diapause development would seem to be of significance to the process of diapause termination. Diapause development was shown to involve changes in the acrylamide patterns of soluble proteins and a 20% reduction in the amount of lipoprotein. It was shown to be accompanied by an increase in the in vitro activity of a phenoloxidase enzyme. The activity was dependent on the pH, molarity and lipoprotein concentration of the homogenate. No role for this enzyme in the process of diapause termination could be suggested. A proposal for a biochemical mechanism of diapause is made. It is suggested that diapause is initiated by the inactivation of an enzyme or enzymes essential for embryonic growth beyond the diapause stage. Diapause development is then considered as a process of activation of this enzyme (enzymes) either by the removal of an inhibitor or the production of an activator.
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ItemA comparative study of the flora and fauna of exotic pine plantations and adjacent, indigenous eucalypt forests in Gippsland, Victoria( 1978-01)The introduction and establishment of a new and markedly different environment within a long established natural system provides an excellent opportunity to study the principles of adaptation and colonisation by native species. In Australia, an example is furnished by the conversion of large areas of native eucalypt forests to mono-cultured plantations of Monterey Pine (Pinus radiata). The principal aim of this study was to assess which species of native mammals, birds and higher plants are able to utilise or occupy such plantations. Successional aspects of community structure, and colonisation in pine forest systems, were investigated by considering stands of different ages. A variety of adjacent native eucalypt forests provided controls and indicated the range of potential colonisers. Various habitats in both forest types were studied with regard to potential nest sites and availability of food, in order to determine those habitats most favourable for mammals and birds. The effect, on wildlife, of clearing eucalypt forests, but leaving forest remnants along gullies, was also assessed.
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ItemLife-history strategies of five species of intertidal limpet( 1977)The life-long strategies of five species of intertidal limpet, Cellana tramoserica, Notoacmea petterdi, Patella peroni, Patelloida alticostata, and Siphonaria diemenensis, which occur on the same shore but in different tidal zones, are considered in relation to their different environments. Attention is focused upon reproductive effort, which is defined as the percentage of assimilated energy devoted to reproduction, and which is measured for each species by using annual energy budgets. Environmental and demographic factors, which previous workers have suggested may have important influences on the level of reproductive effort, are investigated. In particular, interspecific differences in reproductive effort are compared with differences in the availability of food resources, differences in the magnitude of density-independent causes of mortality, differences in adult mortality rates and differences in extrinsic adult mortality rates (i.e. the adult mortality rates that would occur in the absence of expenditure of energy in reproduction.) The results of the present study indicate that reproductive effort is correlated with the availability of food resources, but that the primary determinant of the optimum level of reproductive effort is the rate of extrinsic adult mortality.
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ItemThe evolutionary significance of postmating isolation in anuran amphibians( 1974)Levels of intertaxon genetic incompatibility were determined within three south-eastern Australian amphibian species groups: the genus Ranidella; the Geocrinia laevis complex; and the Litoria ewingi complex. These groups include, wide-ranging taxa in which an assessment of regional differentiation could be made, as well as a variety of intertaxon interactions ranging from broad intergradation to extensive sympatry. Particular emphasis was placed on analysis of narrow zones of interaction between taxa in an attempt to determine the relative importance of the various types of reproductive isolating mechanisms outlined by Littlejohn (1969). The major method employed in these studies was in vitro artificial hybridization. Data derived from this investigation were combined with other available information on aspects of reproductive isolation and general biology of the included taxa, both to assess the significance of reproductive isolation, and to determine phylogenetic relationships and patterns of speciation within the three species groups. The wide-ranging taxa show a high level of genetic uniformity throughout their ranges, suggesting that levels of organization higher than local populations (i.e. biological species) exist in nature. The operation of two fundamentally different kinds of potential postmating isolating factors is suggested. Firstly, a significant level of intrinsic postmating isolation between species, where present, results in their effective and irreversible separation. However, it was found that cognate taxa were generally not characterized by high levels of genetic incompatibility. Secondly, ecological differences between interacting taxa, arising from adaptations to discontinuous, heterogeneous habitats, could provide significant isolation which, in terms of natural selection, has the same effect as intrinsic postmating factors. Premating isolating mechanisms are clearly highly adaptive in terms of reproductive efficiency and success. However the adaptive significance of premating isolation is manifest only in situations where selection acts against individuals which mismate. Hence isolation between interacting taxa dependent solely on premating isolating mechanisms is tenuous and likely to break down. It is proposed that future research on the mechanisms of divergent evolution should be directed more towards detailed studies of extensively sympatric cognate species, particularly their ecological interactions, and less towards the genetic aspects of hybrid zones.
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ItemThe evolution and ecology of the Gadopsis marmoratus complex( 1986)The Family Gadopsidae is the only family of fishes in South-eastern Australia which is both endemic to this region, and strictly confined to fresh water. Although several species of Gadopsis have been proposed, prior to the commencement of this study only one species, G. marmoratus Richardson, was formally recognised. This species was known to exhibit considerable geographic variation in morphology, colouration patterns, and size; and it had been suggested that the taxonomy of the genus was in need of review. This study is an attempt to: (i) determine the number of species in the, G. marmoratus complex; (ii) assess the relationships between G. marmoratus and any additional taxa in the complex; (iii) Formulate a biogeographic hypothesis to account for the geographic distributions and phylogenetic relationships of the taxa in the G. marmoratus complex; and, (iv) examine ecological characteristics of a population of Gadopsis from each side of the Great Dividing Range in Victoria. Analysis of meristic variation revealed that two sympatric taxa of Gadopsis were present in north-eastern Victoria. No evidence of hybridization between these taxa was found. The two taxa have different numbers of spines in the dorsal fin, and the specific status of the taxon with only two spines in the fin was recognised by the formal description of G. bispinosus Sanger. By adoption of an evolutionary species concept, and using univariate and multivariate statistical analyses of meristic variation, it was shown that G. marmoratus was comprised of two divergent taxa. It was proposed that these taxa be recognised as separate species, and for the purposes of this study are referred to as northern G. marmoratus and southern G. marmoratus. Multivariate statistical analyses of morphometric variation supported the proposal to recognise northern G. marmoratus and southern G. marmoratus as separate species. Electrophoretic analysis of protein variation also supported the recognition of northern G. marmoratus and southern G. marmoratus, and confirmed that hybridization was not occurring between G. bispinosus and northern G. marmoratus. The level of genetic divergence between northern G. marmoratus and southern G. marmoratus was less than that between both of these taxa and G. bispinosus. This result was interpreted to indicate a close phylogenetic relationship between northern G. marmoratus and southern G. marmoratus, and supported the relationships suggested by the phenetic analysis of meristic and morphometric variation. A biogeographic hypothesis to explain the geographic distributions and phylogenetic relationships of the three taxa was proposed. The ancestry of the Family Gadopsidae has been the subject of some dispute, and the alternative views on this subject were critically reviewed. Support was found for a basal percoid relationship for the family, and this result suggested that Gadopsis may have been of Gondwanan origin. The freshwater life-cycle of all the members of the family was interpreted as further support for a freshwater origin for Gadopsis. Several ecological characteristics of a population of G. bispinosus from the King Parrot Creek and G. marmoratus from the Yarra River system were compared. Gadopsis bispinosus in the King Parrot Creek is a small, lightly-built, short-lived species compared to G. marmoratus from the Yarra River system. The two species were found to have similar reproductive biologies. The discovery of additional species of Gadopsis has created the need for further examination of the evolution and ecology of the G. marmoratus complex, and suggestions for such further study are included at the end of this study.
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ItemThe acoustic repertoire of the bell miner, Manorina melanophrys( 1989)Acoustic communication was studied in a population of the cooperatively-breeding Bell Miner, Manorina melanophrys (Family Meliphagidae), from March 1985 to May 1988 at Bundoora, Victoria. The study aimed to describe the acoustic repertoire of the Bell Miner and to investigate the function of vocalizations in the repertoire. An additional aim was to examine whether there were functional specializations of vocal signals associated with a cooperatively-breeding social organization. Eighteen adult calls and four juvenile calls were distinguished in the acoustic repertoire of the Bell Miner. Six adult calls were given only by females and one adult call was given only by males. For calls that were given by both sexes, there were no differences between males and females. Most calls that were analyzed showed difference s between individuals in some characteristics; however, only two calls showed strong evidence of individuality. The characteristic tink call appears to function as an interspecific territorial call, deterring other species of birds from entering the area occupied by a Bell Miner social unit. The tink call may also act as a contact call between birds. Female-specific calls are believed to function in courtship of males (assisting a female in obtaining a breeding position), in synchronizing reproduction between mates, in reinforcing the pair-bond between mates, in acoustic mate-guarding, and as contact calls during nesting (ensuring that the female’s mate and other birds in the social unit are aware of the female's activities). The individuality of the female-specific chuk-a-choo call may enable males to recognize their mates. The male-specific oar call is believed to function in establishing and reinforcing a pair bond. The mew call given by both sexes appears to function to elicit a begging response from young; to induce a bird to leave young when the caller is approaching; to signal to other birds that the caller is leaving the young; to encourage nestlings to fledge; and to lead fledglings away from danger. Observations also suggest that the mew call functions in advertising male helping behaviour. Recognition of males on the basis of this individually distinctive call may occur. Calls of the Bell Miner also function as alarm calls, mobbing calls (to confuse an intruder and to encourage it to move on, and to alert and attract other birds to a mobbing), distress calls (to attract birds to a caller held by a predator) and distraction calls (to attract an intruder's attention away from young). Juvenile calls are believed to function in soliciting food from adults, to signal a juvenile's location to adults and to attract adults. Other potential functions of calls are discussed. The specificity of vocal functions of the Bell Miner in the context of a cooperatively-breeding social organization was evaluated by comparisons with vocalizations reported in the literature for other species. Several vocal adaptations were identified that may be restricted to, or most prominent in, species with a cooperatively-breeding social organization: these include the possession of a general interspecific territorial call, acoustic courtship of males by females, and vocal advertising of helping behaviour. Vocal components of communal display behaviour of the Bell Miner may also have functions adapted to a cooperatively-breeding social organization.
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ItemThe feeding and breeding biology of the sacred ibis Threskiornis aethiopicus in southern Victoria( 1984)This study aimed to elucidate the major selective factors affecting the biology, and particularly the breeding ecology of the Sacred Ibis (Threskiornis aethiopicus) in Australia. A comparative study of the breeding ecology of the Family Plataleidae in Australia was undertaken to define the ecological niche of the Sacred Ibis. The Australian ibis and spoonbills have very similar breeding ecology to their conspecifics and congeners elsewhere in the world. However, the breeding success of Australian birds appears to be limited by food supply whereas, in African members of the Family, for example, breeding success is limited by predation. In Australia, Sacred Ibis exhibit two broad responses to their environment: some populations showed adaptations in their breeding to an unpredictable environment; and, other populations have developed complex breeding strategies that are dependent on a highly predictable set of environmental conditions. In unpredictable environments, Sacred Ibis do not breed regularly but rather breeding is closely tied to the variable environmental conditions; the ibis move away from the breeding site when the area dries out. In unpredictable environments, clutch size is adjusted to the conditions and the ibis may employ multiple brooding. Where the environment is much more predictable, Sacred Ibis breed on a very regular cycle. In these environments, ibis are highly sedentary and clutch and brood size and multiple brooding are adjusted to maximise seasonal reproductive success, that is, Sacred Ibis raise fewer offspring per brood than the apparent maximum number possible as a trade-off against raising more broods in each breeding season. The timing and duration of the breeding attempts has had a major effect on the mating system. Sacred Ibis are essentially monogamous but one case of apparent polygyny was found. The mating system is also characterised by a high rate of promiscuous copulation and changes of mate between breeding attempts. The roles of male and female in post-fledging care of young and costs/benefits to life-time fitness are discussed. The selective factors maintaining colonial nesting are reviewed and the single most important evolutionary pressure affecting the breeding ecology of the Sacred Ibis is finding food; predation was shown to be unimportant.
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ItemIndividual variation in reproductive success in the sacred ibis( 1988)Factors affecting the reproductive success of individually colour-banded sacred ibis, Threskiornis aethiopicus stricitpennis (Gould), at Healesville Sanctuary, Victoria, were studied from November, 1983, to March, 1987. Although the majority of clutches were of three eggs, the modal fledging success was two young, due to starvation of the third chick. The likely adaptive value of brood reduction is discussed. Characteristics of individuals (e.g. weight, body condition, culmen length, estimated age and dominance status) had no discernible effect on the number of chicks raised to fledging from one attempt (fledging success). The structure of the dominance hierarchy among male sacred ibis at Healesville is described. Dominance relationships among females were not consistent and, therefore, analysis of dominance status was restricted to males. Weight was the major trait contributing to a male's dominance status. High-status males achieved a higher seasonal reproductive success than did low-status males in two seasons when resources were apparently at low levels. Reproductive success over five consecutive years was largely dependent on survival, but, no significant relationships between individual traits and survival were found. Male sacred ibis achieving high seasonal reproductive success tended to survive better than did less successful males. Thus, variation in success measured over a short term (one season) underestimated the variation between males in success measured over a long term (five years). Variation in success of females also increased with the longer sampling period, but not at as fast a rate as variation in male success. Variation in success is therefore significantly greater in males than females, even though the sacred ibis is a monogamous species. Variability in reproductive success and number of attempts among individuals is facilitated by the changes of mate frequently observed in individuals breeding more than once in a season. Female sacred ibis were found to invest more in any one attempt than were male ibis. Consequently, individual females averaged fewer nesting attempts per season than did males and, with the sex-ratio of unity, females were a limiting resource for males. The resulting opportunity for selection on males is apparently fulfilled to some degree, with high-status, heavy and old males being particularly successful in competition for mates.