School of Agriculture, Food and Ecosystem Sciences - Theses
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ItemA study of weight-loss and compensatory gain in sheep( 1971)Two experiments of similar nature were conducted. In the first experiment 49 Corriedale wethers at approximately 8 months of age were allocated to four experimental groups and, within groups, to various slaughter weights which were spaced at 5 kg intervals. Group I animals were fed ad libitum and slaughtered - over a body weight- range of 38 - 63 kg inclusive. Groups II and III animals were fed ad libitum until 48 kg body weight hereupon intake was restricted to achieve a body weight loss of 0.9 kg/week until body weights were reduced to 38.5 kg and 34.5 kg, respectively. Ad libitum feeding was then resumed and animals were slaughtered up to 63 kg body weight at the same weight intervals as in Group I. Group IV animals were fed ad libitum until 48 kg body weight and then, food was adjusted to maintain body weight at 48 kg. Four animals were slaughtered after 60 days and a further four after 120 days of maintenance of body weight. In the second experiment, 15 wethers of similar age, breed and nutritional history as those used in Experiment 1, were allocated to four slaughter groups in a treatment similar to that of Group III in Experiment 1. Four animals were slaughtered at 33 kg body weight at the beginning of the first period of ad libitum feeding; three animals slaughtered at 45.5 kg at the end of the first period of ad libitum feeding; three animals slaughtered at 33.5 kg at the end of the weight loss phase; and five animals slaughtered at 46.5 kg at the end of the second period of ad libitum feeding. The compensatory growth rates of animals in Groups II and III were greater than those of Group I in each of the successive 5.5 kg increments in body weight. By maintaining higher growth rates over the entire weight range, the largest animals of Groups I I and III were slaughtered at a similar age to those, of Group I. Similarly, in Experiment 2, the compensatory growth rates (Group VI) were greater than continuous growth rates (Group V) over the body weight range used in this experiment. The data was transformed to logarithms in order to use Huxley's (1932) allometric growth equation in the linear form for an analysis of covariance. During continuous growth (Groups I and V), the empty body weight (EBW) increased as a proportion of full body weight (FEW) whilst during the compensatory growth which followed weight loss (Groups II, III and VI) the proportion of EBW remained constant. At the same FEW the EBW of Groups I I and III was less than that of Group I. Similarly, the EBW of animals maintained at a constant body weight (Group IV) was less, at the same FBW, than that of Group I. Carcass weight (CW) increased as a proportion of EBW as EBW increased in Groups I and V but the proportion remained constant in Groups II, III and VI. At the geometric mean FEW, treatment did not affect CW. However, the apparent dressing percentage (CW / FBW x 100) was 2% less during compensatory growth compared with that during continuous growth. The carcass length of animals in Groups II, III and IV was greater than that of animals in Group I.
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ItemGrowth, body composition and related studies of farm animals( 1975)The publications included in this thesis report experiments done while the candidate has been a member of staff at the University of Melbourne (1957-1975) . The thesis is divided in five sections, as follows:- (Paper Nos.) Growth and development of farm animals 1-20. Physical studies of the alimentary tract of dairy cattle 21-24. Investigations of the skin of cattle 25-27. Animal behaviour 28-29. Miscellaneous papers on animal production 30-33. The section entitled "Growth and Development of Farm Animals" begins with a review (Paper No. 1) of the results of some of the papers in this section. It is followed by two papers (2, 3) which re-analyse the data of other authors and present hypotheses which are later developed and tested (in papers 4 to 20) . Papers numbered 4, 7, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 were presented as part of the candidate's Ph.D. thesis. They are included, not for examination, but because they are related to other work in this thesis. Papers numbered 2, 3, 5 are related to material in the same Ph.D. thesis. In all papers where authorship is shared, the joint authors were either scientific colleagues, research assistants or graduate students. In all cases, the candidate made a contribution in the collection of the data, and was responsible for the design of the experiments. He was also responsible for the supervision of the work and played a major role in preparing it for publication. Where the candidate's name appears either as sole author or as senior author, he was directly responsible for and involved in all aspects of each experiment.
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ItemA molecular genetic study of seed dormancy in aegilops tauschii and expression of sprouting resistance in common hexploid wheat( 2004)The wild wheat relative Aegilops tauschii, has been identified as a useful source of preharvest sprouting (PHS) resistance for hexaploid bread wheat. Seed dormancy, a major contributor to PHS resistance, was shown to be partly expressed in hexaploid wheat derived from direct hybridisation between Triticum aestivum and Ae. tauschii. The enhanced seed dormancy possessed by the Ae. tauschii derived direct-cross wheat lines was manifested by embryo and seedcoat related mechanisms. The embryo related mechanism could not confer full expression of dormancy without the presence of seedcoat related factors, suggesting that the two mechanisms may be independently inherited. The presence of seedcoat related dormancy however, was not associated with the red seedcoat phenotype, which has traditionally been associated with PHS resistance in wheat. Red pigmentation of the seedcoat is likely to be "involved in the extreme dormancy possessed by Ae. tauschii but does not preclude partial expression within a white seedcoat background. The ability of Ae. tauschii derived wheat lines to enhance seed dormancy may have potential economic benefit to breeding for PHS resistance in white wheat varieties. Presently, white wheat varieties grown in the sprouting susceptible regions of Australia possess inadequate protection, costing the industry up to $100M annually. Inheritance of seed dormancy in Ae. tauschii was found to be controlled by one or two major genes which were influenced by minor genes and/or environmental factors. These results are consistent with the findings of several previous reports. Inheritance was shown to be dominant at the F3 grain generation, consistent with the generally dominant nature of dormancy possessed by red seeded genotypes. However, preliminary assessment of individual F2 seeds indicated recessive control of dormancy. Because genes possessed by the maternal tissues of the seedcoat do not segregate until the F3 seed generation, the F2 recessive model may be indicative of separate genetic control for the embryo related dormancy mechanism(s). Based on the above inheritance information, a bulked segregant analysis approach was initially undertaken for the development of linked molecular markers for seed dormancy. One microsatellite marker on chromosome 1D produced polymorphism between resistant and susceptible DNA bulks. A mapping approach was subsequently undertaken, revealing two significant QTL mapping to chromosome 1D. The putative QTL for seed dormancy will relate to the embryo component of dormancy, as the trait data employed related to the F2 seed generation, which was segregating for embryo related genes. The D genome of hexaploid wheat presently possesses the fewest QTL for PHS resistance of the three contributing genomes. Within the D genome, chromosome 1D was poorly represented in the literature. As such, 4e. tauschii represents a potential to bolster numbers of QTL for sprouting resistance in hexaploid wheat. Given the homology between the D genomes of Ae. tauschii and T aestivum, the microsatellite markers identified, flanking the putative QTL, will likely be transferable to hexaploid bread wheat. Seed dormancy is strongly influenced by conditions during growth. As such, unambiguous selection through use of molecular markers will expedite the introgression of this economically important trait into elite wheat cultivars.
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ItemGrowth rate and body composition of cattle( 1971)A study has been made of the effect on body composition of growing Angus steers at three different rates. On reaching a live weight of 300 kg, animals were allocated to three treatments, viz; (i) a high growth rate (H):- 0.8kg/day (ii) a low growth rate (L):- 0.4kg/day (iii) a high growth rate 0.8kg/day followed by a period during which live weight was maintained constant (HM). The animals in each group were individually penned and the different growth rates were achieved by controlling intakes of a pelleted concentrate feed. Two animals were killed at 300 kg and the remaining 27 animals (nine in each treatment) were killed at common live weights of 330, 363, 400 and 440 kg. Analyses of the data by covariance were made using the logarithmic transformation of the allometric equation y = axb. At the same full body weight (FBW), HM animals had a greater empty body weight (EBW) than L animals, but the differences between H animals and the other groups were not significant. At the same FBW, hot carcass weight (HCW) was greater in the HM group than in both the H and L groups. As a proportion of.EBW, HCW was greater in both the HM and L groups than in the H group, indicating a greater offal component of EBW in the H animals. The loss in weight of the dressed carcass during storage at 2C for 24 hours was similar in all three groups and amounted to 0.98% of HCW. The proportion of HCW in the fore- and hind-quarter was similar in each group. The composite weight of the lungs, trachea, heart and skirt muscle (LTHS) was unaffected by the different growth rates. Liver weight, however, was lower in both the HM and L groups than in the H group. Moreover, the difference in liver weight between the H and L groups increased as liveweight at slaughter increased. Maintenance of live weight in the HM animals caused a reduction in the weight of the kidneys while the low growth rate of L animals was associated with an enhanced growth of the spleen. The weight of the pancreas was similar in the H and L groups while, at the heaviest live weight (440 kg), there was an apparent loss of pancreas tissue during the maintenance period in the HM group. The combined weight of the head, feet and tail (HFT) was greater in the animals from both the HM and L groups than in the H group. This was a reflection of the older age of the HM and L animals at slaughter. Hide weight was similar in both the H and L groups while the weight of the hide in the HM animals showed a differential effect of live weight compared to the H treatment. At the lowest killing weight (330 kg), the hide showed an apparent loss in weight. during the maintenance period while at the highest killing weight (440 kg) it showed an increase in weight. These differences in hide weight may have been related to seasonal effects on cattle coats and on skin thickness.
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ItemAn analysis of the problems of estimating the thyroid hormone level in the blood of domestic animals, and the effects of varying that level on the marketable products of such animals( 1957)In the field of animal husbandry it is becoming increasingly apparent that maximum efficiency of production cannot be attained without careful attention to the health of the animal, and to the balance between the animal and both the internal and external environments. For example, if artificial methods are used to increase production of milk without at the same time increasing, the feed intake the result is generally a decline in the health of the cow which may eventually lead to serious illness. Much recent research in this field has been concerned with the function and activities of specific organs rather than with the body as a whole, showing; that the factors involved in production are much more numerous and varied than was originally thought. Examples of this type of research are the intensive investigations at present being conducted into rumen activity and microflora, wool fibre growth, mammary gland function, reproductive activity and the role of various endocrine glands in production. Of the endocrine glands, apart from those directly concerned in reproduction, the one most studied has been the thyroid which has been shown to play an important part in practically all spheres of animal production so far investigated. It was the aim of this experiment to establish a method for determining thyroid activity which would then allow us to investigate the relationship between this activity and various body processes in the normal animal. In the normally functioning animal the thyroid serves chiefly as a homeostatic mechanism maintaining the body functions at a steady level of activity and, to a certain extent, controlling the response of the body to changes in the external environment. Its effects are more apparent when the thyroid activity is altered in any of the many ways to be considered later. The lowering of the thyroid hormone output produces an animal with typical symptoms - low Basal Metabolic Rate, low body temperature, low reproductive capacity, decreased growth and development in young animals, increased fat deposition, sluggishness, drying and thickening of the skin and falling hair. On the other hand the hyperthyroid animal shows an. increased Basal Metabolic Rate, high body temperature, leanness, restlessness and, in some cases, protruding eyes. These facts have recently been put to practical agricultural use. Raising the thyroid output leads to a significant increase in growth rate, milk yield and egg production. Lowering; the level has proved a successful method of fattening pigs and fowls for meat production. These aspects are dealt with in the review of literature.
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ItemChoosing sheep for lifetime profitability( 2004)This project investigated the selection of wool sheep for lifetime profitability by measuring the lifetime productive phenotypes of breeding ewes, their lambs and the rams to which the ewes were mated, on a commercial farm in East Gippsland. The measurements were recorded from 1992 to 2002. The seasons varied during this time, including a severe drought from 1996 to 1998. The results clearly demonstrate that the environment, its resources and demands, limit the full phenotypic expression of the genotype of the sheep. This expression varies over the lifetime of the animal. The results identify the sheep that were most suited to their environment. Phenotype interaction: It was found that enhancement of any single profitable phenotypic character resulted in changes to all other profitable phenotypic characters, usually in a negative direction. These phenotypic interactions frequently show curvilinearity and nonlinear relationships, demonstrating that to select on a linear model is frequently not appropriate for profit indicators or biological reality. Measurement of ewe body weight and the weight gain ratio of lambs A method is described for measuring the yearly and lifetime body weights of sheep from which the changing wool weights and weight due to pregnancy were removed. Birth weight, wool weight and weight gain of the suckling lamb were then expressed as a percentage of the body weight of the ewe. This resulted in a clearer understanding of how the ewe allocates metabolic resources. It also demonstrated that too high a bodyweight was itself an excessive user of resources. When the average daily weight gain of the lamb from birth to weaning was expressed as a percentage of the weight of the mother the results provided an early prediction of lifetime profitability of the lamb and indirectly of the mother. This percentage had a strong positive relation to the birth weight, weaning weight, greasy fleece weight of the lamb and to the survival rate of the progeny and the test ewes during the drought. However prediction of the fibre diameter required an independent measurement. Measuring the value of a sheep's wool: A method is described for assessing the value of wool. This eliminates the influence of monetary inflation and helps the farmer make a more accurate judgement of the wool value in the selection of his sheep. Auction prices from all districts of Victoria based on the 1987-1997 auction prices of wool were converted into a Price fibre-diameter ratio. This ratio was used to determine a commercial wool value (Ewe wool score) for each test ewe. For each of the test ewe's male and female progeny, the same ratio was used to obtain a wool score (up to two years of age). These progeny values of all her lambs were added to provide a Progeny wool score for each test ewe. A Combined wool score combined both the ewe's own woolscore and the woolscore of her progeny. The top ten test ewes were identified for each category then compared to the subjective assessments of a sheep classer, the farm manager and the wool classer. Sheep that had high Combined wool scores and were therefore the most profitable over two generations had different phenotypes from those with high individual wool scores. It should be noted that while wethers might be chosen for wool score only, ewes should be chosen for wool score and the ability to produce profitable progeny. This thesis has highlighted the fact that selection for lifetime profitability will differ for ewes and for wethers. Using the Statistica 4.1 (1994) for McIntosh program stepwise multiple regressions were carried out on the test ewes for Ewe wool score, Progeny wool score and Combined wool score. The factors with significant influence (p-level < .05) on each of the three wool scores were identified. For the Ewe wool score, the factors in order of importance are, average fibre diameter (negative), greasy fleece weight, average visual assessment of the fleece and lambs alive December 1996 (negative). Those four factors "explain" 42% of the sums of squares in the Ewe wool score. For the Progeny wool score, the factors in order of importance are, lambs alive in December 1996, which was the end of the recording of the test ewes, and the average fibre diameter (negative). These two factors "explain" 64% of sums of squares in the Progeny wool score. In the Combined wool score, the factors in order of importance are, lambs alive in December 1996, average fibre diameter 1992-6 (negative) and average greasy fleece weight 1992-6 (negative). These three factors "explain" 60% of the sums of squares in the Combined wool score. The negative partial regression for fibre diameter is explained by the position of the average fibre diameter on the Price-fibre diameter curve (finer fibres bring higher prices). The negative partial regression of the Combined wool score on greasy fleece weight suggests that there is competition between resources required for producing wool and for successful reproduction. Heritability estimates: Heritability estimates were calculated from intra-sire regressions of progeny on dams. This was done for body weight, greasy fleece weight, fibre diameter and the visual assessment of the fleece at specific ages over the years for which paired data for the test ewes and their progeny were available. Such estimates were available for hoggets and 2,3,4 and five-year olds of both the dams and progeny, with a varying numbers of pairs at different ages. The results varied between ages and between the sexes of the progeny. There were more data available (pairs of dams and progeny) from the middle age-years. 'When the male and female progeny were considered together, the corrected body weight in years two and four gave highly significant results of 0.45 and 0.44 respectively. Year three had significant results of 0.27. Years one and five were not significantly different from zero. Fibre diameter had highly significant results of 0.89 in year one and significant results of 0.28 in year two and 0.32 in year three. Years four and five were not significant. Greasy fleece weight had significant results of 0.70 in year one. Other years were less than 0.30 and were not significant. Fleece visual assessment had highly significant results of 0.35 in year three; the other years were not significant. One wool classer classified all the fleeces subjectively at shearing over an eight-year period giving a yearly visual score to each fleece. He was unaware of the identity of the fleeces. The results showed a high degree of consistency. The above results shows that visual scores can be heritable. Fibre diameter, greasy fleece weight and their interaction: Fibre diameter was examined for lifetime variation in individual sheep and groups of sheep selected on micron. Lifetime group measurement of fibre diameter was highly predictable. This allows a fanner to get a reasonable lifetime group fibre diameter result from one year of measurement. Lifetime measurements of fibre diameter for individuals were less predictable. Fibre diameter was also examined for the effect of resources and their availability, heritability, ageing, lambing and lactation, and the health of the sheep. The two-generation realized heritability of fibre diameter for the test ewes in 1995 and the one-year old progeny in 1993 to 1995 was 0.50. Greasy fleece weight was examined for lifetime variation, in individual and group measurements, for the effect of the availability of resources, the variations of ageing and the health of the sheep. Greasy fleece weight had lower heritability estimates at hogget age than did fibre diameter. Group measurements of greasy fleece weights had more lifetime variation than did fibre diameter. Therefore a single greasy fleece group measurement would not be as reliable an indicator for lifetime results as a single measure of fibre diameter. Using 1992-6 average values, the fleeces of the Tubbut flock were examined for the relationship of the fibre diameters to greasy fleece weights, from the finest to the broadest fibre diameters. This relationship was not linear. From 25-21 microns the decrease of the greasy fleece weight for each decrease of one micron was 5.7%, from 21-18 microns the result was 9.6 %, from 17-16 microns the result was 11.4%. The limitation of the environment: The data presented in this thesis clearly demonstrate, that with limited resources available from an environment, there is an overriding and fundamental response within animals to allocate those resources to maximize their survival and that of their progeny. Any artificial selection must be carried out with the knowledge, that over time, the animals will attempt to return to the allocation of resources that maintains the best chance of survival for themselves and their progeny. Within this thesis there are many examples where, if sheep had been artificially selected for one character this would have altered all or most of the other characters usually in a negative direction. It has been shown that high artificial selection tends to have that selection reduced in value over the animal's lifetime. Important principles: Results in this thesis highlight that in selecting for lifetime profitability breeders should note that 1) The environment, its resources and demands, limit the full expression of the genotype of the sheep. The effect varies over the lifetime of the animal. 2) In the selection of animals for particular traits, due regard must be given to the effects that the selection will have on the whole of the phenotype. 3) Increased profitability resulting from the selection of one trait may result in the overall loss of profitability from the decrease in other profitable traits. 4) Where research is carried out on one particular trait to either enhance or decrease that trait, the research needs to demonstrate the effect of that selection on the whole animal over its lifetime. 5) Sheep need to be selected for an increase in lifetime profitability in their own commercial environment. Taking note of these principles will ensure true progress is made in phenotypes and genotypes suitable for any particular environment. It will also produce greater profits for Australian farmers.
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ItemA study of wheat crop physiology in relation to time of sowing, rate of sowing and fertilizer application( 1963)A crop physiological study upon yield in wheat was undertaken at Wagga, located in the wheat belt of southern New South Wales, in 1961 and 1962. The effects of time of sowing, rate of sowing and fertilizer application were investigated. The variety, Heron, was used throughout. Comprehensive measurements during the growth cycle of the crops were made upon total dry weight and its components, photosynthetic area, evapotranspiration, soil moisture stress and plant moisture stress (using the leaf relative turgidity technique). Time of sowing had little effect on the soil moisture available to the crop at flowering. However post flowering climatic conditions were hotter and drier for the later sown crops, and consequently plant moisture stress occurred sooner after flowering. Yields fell in both years with later sowings,at an average rate of 2 bushels/acre for each week' s delay in sowing. Increased fertilizer application and increased rate of sowing increased the vegetative growth, and the potential yield at flowering, but this was associated with small reductions in the soil moisture at flowering and an earlier onset of plant moisture stress. The increased vegetative growth usually resulted in increased grain yields, but under drier conditions grain yields were reduced. Nitrogenous fertilizer appeared to have additional effects on the crop which may under some conditions be detrimental to grain yield. Certain interrelationships within the soil/crop system were evident from these trials. Evapotranspiration increased as photosynthetic area index increased when soil moisture was adequate. Leaf relative turgidity at sunrise was closely related to soil moisture stress. Grain yield variation was highly correlated with variation in photosynthetic area duration after flowering. Photosynthetic area duration was related to photosynthetic area index at flowering and to the level of plant moisture stress after flowering, which governed the rate of senescence of this photosynthetic tissue. These results and the value of this type of crop physiological study of yield in wheat are discussed. The application of some aspects of the results to wheat agronomy and breeding is apparent.
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