School of Agriculture, Food and Ecosystem Sciences - Theses
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ItemRural credit and farm viability : a study of the Shelford soldier settlement scheme( 1973)The accelerated fall in wool prices towards the end of the 1960's precipitated the emergence of a financial crisis in the sheep industry with high farm debts and low farm incomes. The subject of rural credit, which had provoked only minor discussion throughout the buoyant income periods of the 1950's and 1960's, became increasingly debated by farm leaders who challenged the suitability of the existing credit market to meet the increasing capital needs of the rural sector. Since the implementation of the rural reconstruction scheme in 1971 which provides assistance for a limited number of unviable farmers, farmer demands for more general concessional credit facilities have intensified. Recently, following submissions by several farmer organizations to the Government for assistance, the subject of rural credit has rapidly developed into a political issue. This thesis is a study of farm indebtedness and the rural credit market in a woolgrowing community of soldier settlers in the Leigh Shire of the Victorian Western District. The area was chosen because it was thought that the settlers, hard hit by the 1967-68 drought, and heavily dependent on the profitability of woolgrowing, would be suffering severe financial problems. The economic analysis was restricted by the lack of suitable empirical data. The original survey data, collected by the Agricultural Extension Section of the University by personal interviews with farmers, did not include farm costs or inventory levels. Because this was a pilot study, the data was cross-sectional, referring only to the survey year. Before proceeding with the analysis, it was necessary to obtain additional financial information from the taxation records of co-operating farmers. The thesis was written before but submitted after the release of a Bureau of Agricultural Economics report (B.A.E. 1972) advising the Government on the adequacy of existing credit facilities. Consequently, no reference has been made elsewhere in the thesis to this report. The thesis is organized as follows. Chapters 1 and 2 provide a general introduction to farmers' borrowing behaviour, the existing rural credit market, and the debt position of the rural sector, especially the sheep industry. In chapter 3, the Shelford settlement is discussed with emphasis on the debt position of Shelford farmers and their use of credit facilities. In chapter 4, an attempt is made to relate the financial position of farmers to their physical resource levels and social characteristics. The variance in debt and income are analysed. Chapter 5 contains a discussion of some past influences on the current debt position, especially the 1967-68 drought. In chapter 6, the present and future prospects of farm financial viability are studied. Some commonly used indicators of viability are evaluated within the Shelford context. The dependence of settlers on short term lenders and the future role these lenders are likely to play at Shelford and elsewhere are discussed in chapter 7. Finally in chapter 8, the role of credit in agricultural adjustment is discussed. A solution for unviable Shelford farmers is proposed and some brief comments on the shortcomings of the present credit market are advanced. Conclusions are presented throughout the thesis, and chapter 7 and 8 form a summary of the rural credit situation in general and at Shelford.
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ItemA systems analysis approach to drought reserves in the Hamilton region( 1971)Following a discussion of drought strategies available to the grazier, one particular strategy, the holding of drought fodder reserves, is examined in detail. The study estimates the least-cost fodder reserves for a range of stocking rate-pasture production regimes in the Hamilton region. The amount of hay feeding required on any stocking-pasture regime is determined from a simulation model of the grazing complex. In this model, three levels of pasture production are stocked at rates ranging from one to ten wethers per acre. The pasture production assumed ranges from "excellent" (i.e. equivalent to the Hamilton Research Station pastures which produce about 10,000 lb. dry matter per annum) to "poor" (35% less). The climatic inputs into the grazing model are the date of Autumn break, for which a formula is derived, and the June to October rainfall. The pasture sub-model is specified and used to derive the pasture which is "grown" in the grazing model. The sheep aspects of the model are reviewed in detail to derive the relationships which are used in the next set of four sub-models in which animal intake is simulated and liveweight changes determined. This set of four sub-models provides for the four situations of animal intake which may be met. These are: The intake of green pasture alone (i.e. all pasture grown after the Autumn Break); the intake of hay alone; the intake of hay and green pasture together; the intake of hay and dry pasture (pasture remaining when the Autumn Break occurs and dry pasture alone which are handled in the same sub-model) The grazing model was validated for the years 1965-67 using data from the Pastoral Research Station, Hamilton, and showed good agreement for all three years simulated, one of which featured a severe drought. Drought feeding requirements (hay) are determined for each of the years 1879 to 1967 and for the ten stocking rate-pasture production regimes, using specific hay feeding rules. These rules, which aim at sheep survival, do not attempt to specify optimum feeding rates per sheep, and any change in them could significantly alter the drought requirements for any of the regimes studied. Furthermore, the estimates are Lased on the assumption that all sheep are fed through the drought. A pre-drought strategy which permitted the sale of certain classes of sheep at some stage during drought would entail lower feed requirements and might have a lower expected cost, especially at high acquisition costs for feed and low replacement costs for sheep. An inventory analysis is then undertaken, based on a 12 month planning period, which utilises the hay feeding probabilities generated in the grazing model, and provides estimates of the least-cost hay reserve. In contrast to previous studies, the price of hay is related to drought length in calculating the penalty cost of inadequate reserves. The effects of varying several parameters of the inventory model are then examined. The parameters varied are hay costs ($4, $10 and $16 per ton), interest rates (7%, 20% and 50%), and salvage values, and these vary in association with the parameters varied in the grazing model (stocking rate, pasture production and the area closed for hay). At the intermediate values for pasture production and hay cost and a 7 per cent per annum interest rate, the minimum-cost reserve rises sharply, from 2 bales per acre at 2 wethers per acre, to 4.5 bales per acre at 3 wethers per acre, 8 bales per acre at 4 wethers per acre, and 15 bales per acre at 5 wethers per acre. The minimum-cost reserve was found to be relatively insensitive to changes in acquisition costs, except at low stocking rates, where a change in reserve of one or two half-bales per sheep was common as acquisition cost varied over the three levels. The effect of interest rates was also examined for the average pasture regime. On the lowest level of hay acquisition cost, ($4 per ton) increasing the rate of interest from 7 to 50 per cent caused reductions of only one half-bale per sheep. However, at high acqusition cost ($16 per ton) raising the interest rate to 20 per cent resulted in a considerable reduction in the minimum-cost reserve, especially on the lower stocking rates, and raising the interest rate to 50 per cent made holding fodder reserves uneconomic for any stocking rate. One measure of the risk in holding various levels of fodder reserve is the standard deviation of the total expected cost. As expected, it was found that this declines as the reserve is expanded to the maximum ever required. However, only a small reduction in standard deviation results from expanding the reserve beyond the minimum-cost level. Finally, estimates were made of the income-maximising stocking rate for each level of pasture production and hay cost, with the wool price at 30, 40 and 50 cents per lb.. At the intermediate values for pasture production (8,000 lb. D.M.) and hay cost ($10 per ton), and with wool at 30 cents per lb. net, the income-maximising stocking rate was 3 wethers per acre. Each increase of 10 cents per lb. in the wool price was generally associated with an increase of one or two wethers per acre in the income-maximising stocking rate. An increase of 2,000 lb. D.M. (from "average" to "excellent") in average annual pasture production was generally associated with an increase of one wether per acre in the income-maximising stocking rate. A reduction of 1,500 lb. from "average" to "poor" pasture. production reduced the income-maximising stocking rate by about one wether per acre. Increasing the hay cost from $4 to $10 per ton reduced the profit-maximising stocking rate by one wether per acre for all combinations of pasture production and wool price examined. However, a further increase in acquisition cost from $10 to $16 per ton only caused a further reduction in the income-maximising stocking rate at the poor level of pasture production: with average pasture production there was little change and with excellent production there was no change in the income-maximising stocking rate.
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ItemSome effects of botanical composition of pasture on the liveweight and wool production of sheep( 1972)Until recently, the main evidence on which to base pasture mixture. recommendations in Victoria, has been district experience and the results from dry matter ( "mowing") experiments. The grazing experiments described in this thesis, were initiated by Messrs. R. Twentyman, R. Newman, R. Allen and K. Maher of the Department of Agriculture during the period, 1960-196. Their aim was to develop some objective appreciation of the relative value for animal production of some of the sown and unsown species in Western district pastures. In addition to pasture species evaluation, they sought information on the relationship between pasture growth and animal production. Such information is needed so that Agrostologists can better evaluate the many pasture management factors (such as fertilizers, seeding rates, seed. treatments, herbicides, insecticides and defoliation treatments) that affect pasture growth and for which advice is frequently sought.
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ItemTHe role of stock agents in the rural industry( 1974)The role of many servicing groups has been looked at by research workers interested in determining the influence these organisations have on the process of change in the rural industry. However, most of the research has concentrated on Government groups such as the agricultural extension services. Little attention has been paid to private groups such as stock agents. This research project used the theory of social roles to describe and evaluate farmers' and agents' perceptions of tasks which comprise the agents' role in the rural industry. Twelve agents and 20 farmers from two rural centres were interviewed to determine their perceptions of the agents' job. One aim of the study was to describe the main tasks that comprise the service agents offer farmers. The relative importance of the various tasks, defined areas of agreement and disagreement between farmers and agents. Another aim of the study was to determine the agents' activity in promoting change and improvements in marketing wool and livestock. There were differences between the two groups as to how the agents' role was perceived. The data are presented in four sections: First, the overall role relations between agents and farmers are broadly defined and in particular the tasks concerned with the agents' overall role are emphasised. Points of consensus and disagreement between agents and farmers are discussed. Second, perceptions by both groups, of the agents' tasks in woolbroking are discussed and attention is paid to points of agreement and disagreement. In a similar way to woolbroking, the agent's tasks in stock selling and finance are discussed. In all sections of results, the perceptions of both groups towards change or improvement of the agents' role are discussed. Concluding comments and recommendations are made with regard to the future role of agents in the service they provide for farmers and suggestions are made for further research.
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ItemVegetative and sheep production on a semi-arid Danthonia caespitosa (Gaudich) -Stipa variabilis (Hughes) grassland in response to fertilizers and deferred grazing( 1977)The initial and residual effects of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers applied over four consecutive years and gypsum applied once only, were assessed on a Danthonia caespitosa - Stipa variabilis grassland, growing on the semi-arid Riverine Plain of south-eastern Australia. The treatments were combined factorially. The residual effects were assessed over a five-year period from when the fertilizers were last applied. Totals of 155 and 310 kg ha-1 of N, 100 and 200 kg ha-1 of P, and 3.34 and 6.68 tonne ha-1 of CaSO4.2H20 had been added. Seasonal production of total dry matter and individual species, and nitrogen and phosphorus contents of the plant tops, were measured. A simultaneous, but separate, study was made over five years of the effects of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers and deferred spring grazing on the bodyweight and wool production of Merino wether weaners grazing a D. caespitosa - S. variabilis grassland at three stocking rates. Seasonal forage availability, botanical composition of forage, bodyweight and wool growth of sheep, were measured. Two years after grazing treatments ceased, and three years after the final addition of fertilizer, further measurements were made on the vegetation. In the first study, during the four years of fertilizer application, forage production increased in response to the additives in years in which the annual rainfall varied from well below to near average. They accentuated the normal pattern of a spring peak, but also gave lesser increases in production in winter and autumn. Summer production was not measured because of the absence of effective summer rainfall. Nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers and gypsum all contributed to the increased production, and the combination of the three additives produced the greatest yield. Over all seasons the yield of grassland treated with nitrogen plus phosphorus plus gypsum averaged 250 per cent of the control, or approximately 1,500 kg ha-1. The main contributors to increases in yield were D. caespitosa, S. variabilis, annual herbs, and legumes. The perennial grasses were particularly favoured by nitrogen fertilizer whereas the yield of legumes was suppressed. The yield of legumes increased greatly in response to phosphorus fertilizer. With the exception of two species, all plants which increased in yield are acceptable to sheep. Nitrogen and phosphorus contents were above the minimum requirements for domestic herbivores. The study of the residual effects revealed that the increase in dry matter production in response to nitrogen ceased one year after the last application of nitrogen fertilizer. After five years, grassland which had received 200 kg ha-1 of phosphorus and 6.68 tonne ha-1 of gypsum yielded 6,500 kg ha-4 of dry matter, compared with 1,300 kg ha-1 in the absence of fertilizers and gypsum. Legume growth was still suppressed five years after nitrogen fertilizer had been applied, whilst legumes increased production greatly in response to the previous phosphorus and phosphorus-gypsum treatments. Nitrogen content of the herbage averaged 2.1 per cent four years after the previous high level phosphorus treatment, compared to 1.6 per cent with the control after four years. It was unaffected by previous nitrogen fertilizer. Phosphorus content was reduced for the first three years after nitrogen fertilizer was last added, but was increased by phosphorus fertilizer to 0.28 per cent, compared with 0.18 per cent on the control, four years after phosphorus fertilizer was last added. Soil moisture characteristics, and total soil nitrogen and carbon showed no differences between treatments. The Truog phosphorus in the soil under the high phosphorus level decreased from 103 ppm to 53 ppm, compared to the unaltered control level of 7 ppm over the five year period. In the grazing experiment there were very few differences in plant and animal response between the continuously and deferred grazing systems. Forage availability increased on fertilized grassland at all stocking rates by up to 50 per cent. D. caespitosa, S. variabilis, perennial chenopods, and annual herbs contributed to the increase in forage present. Medicago polymorpha became prominent on all fertilized grassland. At 2.0 and 2.7 sheep ha-1 without fertilizer, and 2.7 sheep ha- 1 with fertilizer, the relative contribution by the more palatable species decreased and EriochIamys behrii increased greatly. After grazing treatments ceased, this trend was reversed. Sheep bodyweight and wool growth rates were increased on fertilized grassland. In September 1971, at 2.0 sheep ha-1, the bodyweights of sheep on unfertilized and fertilized grassland were 35.0 and 45.2 kg, respectively, and the clean fleece weights were 3.2 and 4.3 kg per sheep, respectively. Animal production from this grassland can be increased with the addition of fertilizer to the grassland and by increasing the stocking rate by about 50 per cent above the district average of 1.2 sheep per hectare.
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ItemThe training needs of agribusiness in Australia : a commodity systems approach( 1978)Adopting the concept of agribusiness and the commodity systems approach, this study was conducted to assess the in-service training needs of the human resources in the wheat and the beef commodity systems of Victoria. Having defined the two selected commodity systems in their macro environment, the study concentrated at the level of the individual organization to determine the training needs for the managerial, the professional, and the sales staff. A mail questionnaire survey was conducted with a multi-cluster sampling technique amongst 708 agribusiness organizations in Victoria and a final response rate of 57% was achieved. The findings of this exploratory study indicated: (1) that there were no appreciable differences in the expressed training needs between the two commodities studied (wheat and beef), and amongst the three staff categories (managerial, professional, and sales staff) investigated; (2) that there was a higher level of need for management knowledge rather than for production knowledge; (3) that courses offered by Technical and Tertiary institutions in Victoria in the area of agribusiness were not recipient-oriented, and were seen as unsuitable for their needs; and (4) that the demand for communication training seen in terms of potential staff-numbers was considerable. Some suggestions regarding the implications of these findings have also been made to meet the training needs revealed by the study.
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ItemThe effect of applied N and P under mowing and grazing on the yield and botanical and chemical composition of irrigated pasture and on the nutrient status of a red-brown earth at Kyabram( 1978)A split plot experiment was conducted over 4 years to study the effect of method of harvesting (grazing and mowing) and applied N and P (5 rates of nitrogen ranged from 0 to 112 kg N ha -1 cut-1 and 6 rates of superphosphate ranged from 0 to 188 kg P ha 1 year year-1) on the yield, botanical and chemical composition of irrigated phalaris (Phalaris tuberosa x Phalaris arundinacea)/white clover (Trifolium repens L. cv. Irrigation) pasture and nutrient status of a red-brown earth at Kyabram. A second experiment was conducted over 2 years to find out the effect of rates (0 to 112 kg N ha. 1) and frequency of N application (2, 4 or 8 times year ) o n dry matter production, botanical composition and crude protein content of paspalum (Paspalum dilatatum)/white clover pasture. Results: Mowed plots significantly out-yielded grazed plots in the first two years. However, grazed plots significantly out-yielded mowed plots in the following two years. Nitrogen application significantly (P <0.01) increased dry matter production of grass/clover mixtures. The size of response was governed by the growth rate of pasture species, clover percentage in the sward, climatic conditions and the status of other nutrients in the soil. Splitting N rates in smaller but more frequent applications had no effect on total herbage yield or seasonal distribution. Response to N (kg D.M. kg N-1 ) declined as N rates increased. Phosphorus application up to 94 kg P ha -1 year -1 significantly (P,(0.01) increased pasture production and relative response was greater in winter. Occasionally, the P and N requirements for maximum production were higher for grazing than for mowing. Both methods of defoliation and fertilizer applications affected pasture composition and IT, P and K content in the herbage. Nitrogen application decreased N in the herbage before increasing it and P application up to 141 kg P ha- 1 year -1 increased it. The return by the grazing animal increased total soil N by 106 kg ha 1 year 1 and soil P (Colwell) by 1:0 p.p.m. in four years compared with the start of the experiment. The relationship between plant P and soil P and P rates were significant (P < 0.01). The available soil P decreased with P withdrawal or the application of 23.5 kg P ha-1 year -1 under grazing and 47 kg P ha -1 year-1 under mowing. Phosphorus and nitrogen application significantly affected available soil P. 60-80% of the available P accuminulated in the 0-5 cm and the downward movement increased by increasing P rates. The continuous mowing and P application significantly reduced available soil K. Defoliation method affected C/t:N ratio. Phosphorus application increased soil N whereas N application decreased it. P application at the rate of 23.5 kg ha-1 year-1 increased total soil N by 0.068% which is equivalent to 952 kg N ha-1 in five years. It was estimated that 4 to 4.7 p.p.m of P was required to be removed or added to the soil to change the available soil P by 1 p.p.m. The application of 196 kg N ha-1 year -1 as NH4 NO3 did not change the soil pH and 784 kg N ha 1 year 1 reduced soil pH by an average of ').4 unit.