School of Agriculture, Food and Ecosystem Sciences - Theses
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ItemEffects of salinity on growth and wood and fibre properties in eucalypts( 2001)Salinity, the presence of soluble salts in soils or waters, can be separated into naturally occurring primary salinity, and secondary salinity resulting from human activities such as land development and agriculture. Secondary salinity involving high, saline water-tables affects large areas, estimated between 4.7 and 6.1 'ha (Williamson 1990, Robertson 1996), of agricultural land in Australia, and tree planting is one approach to lower saline watertables. Such plantations could become a significant fibre source for the pulp and paper industry, but it is not known whether growth in salt-affected environments influences key fibre properties important in paper production. This work therefore examined the wood and fibre properties of Tasmanian blue gum, Eucalyptus globulus ssp. globulus, and river red gum, E. camaldulensis, grown under various conditions of soil salinity. Eucalyptus globulus was studied in trial plantations in the Shepparton region of north-central Victoria. The plantations were established in 1993, and field sampling was carried out from 1995 to 1997. Salinity in the top 20 cm of soil over the period of study (1994 to 1997), according to the soil salinity classes set lutin Marcar et al. (1995), ranged from non-saline at the fresh-channel water-irrigated plot to slightly saline for the saline groundwater-irrigated plots. Tree size generally did not differ significantly between plots at any age. Differences in foliar [Na±], {K±] and [Cl-] occurred between the field plots but were not consistent between years. The highest concentrations of foliar ions were also not always associated with the plot receiving the highest salinity irrigation water, suggesting that in only some years was the soil salt level sufficient to cause a plant response. Wood basic density differed between the plots, but it could not be attributed to salinity, and may have reflected other site-specific effects. Fibre morphology parameters did not differ significantly between the plots. There were some differences between the plots in the increase in fibre length from year to year but the differences were not consistent over the entire survey period and could not conclusively be attributed to differences in soil salinity. A pilot salinity pot trial was conducted on E. camaldulensis plants, as a precursor to a more elaborate experiment planned for potted E. globulus plants. The E. camaldulensis pot trial comprised a single concentration salt (NaCl) treatment and a control (freshwater) treatment applied over a 60 day period. A marked reduction of growth occurred with salt-treated seedlings relative to control seedlings. Concomitant with the reduction in growth, salt-treated seedlings produced significantly shorter, thicker-walled fibres than the control seedlings. The pot-trial on 18-month-old Eucalyptus globulus ssp. globulus trees applied different concentration salt (lRlaCi) solutions over a 10-week period. The salinity of the potting mixture increased markedly in the salt-treated trees relative to the controls. Foliar chloride and sodium were also significantly greater in trees on the higher salt treatments than in the control trees. Diameter growth decreased with the higher salt treatments, and five trees under high salt treatments had to be harvested prior to the planned completion of the experiment, due to their poor state of health. These results indicated the salt treatments had influenced some aspects of tree physiology. A wound made to the cambium allowed pre-treatment fibres (fibres formed prior to the start of the experiment) to be distinguished from post-treatment fibres (fibres formed during the experiment) in the E.globulus pot trial. Trees on higher salt treatments produced significantly longer, thinner-walled fibres compared to controls, but this pattern also occurred in fibres formed before treatments were imposed, implying that these differences were due to preexisting differences in the trees unrelated to the salt treatment. Statistical analysis of fibres formed during treatments, taking account of pre-existing differences, found that there was no significant effect of salt treatment on fibre length or wall thickness, although this was possibly because of the low sample size relative to the variation of the experimental material. The controlled application of salt for 10 weeks during the E. globulus pot trial thus had some effect on tree physiology, but no significant effects on fibre dimensions or wood formation. This was consistent with the observation in the field trial that fibre dimensions and wood formation were not influenced by factors that did not also reduce tree growth, at least in trees up to 4 years old. Higher levels of salt could cause rapid tree decline due to the inability of the trees to exclude the salt, and processes associated with fibre formation would then also cease. The combined results from the field and pot trials indicated that E. globulus, a slightly to moderately salt-tolerant species, suffered negligible or minor growth reductions on soils irrigated to a slightly saline level, and produced fibres of similar morphology to trees grown under non-saline conditions. If soil salinity increased above the moderate level, the trees would continue to grow provided sufficient water is still available, but internal salt levels would increase to the point where tree death would result. Based on the pot trial, where such internal salt levels were achieved, the decline and death of the trees would occur before the salt affects fibre morphology. Eucalyptus camaldulensis adopted a different strategy to cope with salt stress than E. globulus. Eucalyptus globulus continued to grow provided it was supplied with water, despite its saline nature. Finally, when salt levels within the plant reached a critical level, plant health rapidly declined. When E. camaldulensis was watered with solution of a similar salinity to the highest salt treatments in the E. globulus pot trial, there was a rapid cessation in extension growth, but there was no other sign of a deterioration in plant health. The mechanism by which E. camaldulensis was able to quickly cease shoot growth, which presumably allowed it to tolerate saline conditions by restricting salt uptake, was not investigated here. Material from Eucalyptus camaldulensis that had been growing for 14 years on a dryland plantation site in southwest Western Australia was also investigated. Trees from the high salinity area did not differ significantly in average height, diameter and volume from those from the low salinity area. Basic density were significantly greater in the high salinity group of trees than in the low salinity group, but no relationship with tree growth was established. The absence of a relationship between growth and basic density was not unusual, as natural variation in basic density makes it difficult to establish environmental or experimental effects (Downes and Raymond 1997). Fibre fractional wall coverage was greater in the high salinity group of trees than in the low salinity group, as was also the case for the E. camaldulensis pot trial. In the pot trial, however, a significant growth reduction due to salinity was recorded. There were no other differences in fibre morphology between the high and low salinity groups of the Western Australian plantation. Eucalyptus globulus is less salt and waterlogging tolerant than E. camaldulensis (Bennett and George 1995a; Bennett and George 1995b) but in the field studies the growth and wood and fibre properties for each species was similar across the range of salinities encountered. The exception was basic density and fibre fractional wall coverage in the 14-year-old E. camaldulensis, both of which were greater in the high salinity group of trees. It was expected that the growth of E. globulus would be adversely affected if irrigation with the saline groundwater continued for several more years, allowing a build up in soil salinity. Based on the results from the E. globulus pot trial, once soil salinity levels exceed the tolerance limits of this species, a rapid decline in tree health will occur, and fibre formation will cease. Eucalyptus camaldulensis, with its greater salt and waterlogging tolerance, will grow in areas where other commercial species, such s E. globulus, would not thrive. However, E. camaldulensis has disadvantages for farm forestry in Australia, due to low percentage pulp yields by comparison with E. globulus (Arnold et al. 1999), and poor growth rates and tree form (Mazanec 1999). In the USA, E. camaldulensis has equalled the pulp yield of the commercially proven E. globulus (Arnold et al. 1999). Further research into improving pulp yields, growth rates and tree form of E. camaldulensis in Australia, would allow expansion of eucalypt plantations for pulp and wood production, as well as land and water care, onto previously unsuitable land.
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ItemDecline of river red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh.) on grazing lands in Western Victoria( 1988)River Red Gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh.) is a common and extensively distributed tree in western Victoria. Widely-spaced stands of this species are a prominent feature of pastoral landscapes in that area. Many of these remnant stands are in a state of decline, with individuals being lost through deliberate clearing, senescence or the effect of rural dieback disease syndromes. This thesis reports on a study of the decline of one stand of E.camaldulensis trees growing on part of a grazing property near Buangor, in west-central Victoria. The rate of tree loss from agricultural land in the Buangor district was assessed from aerial photographs taken in 1947 and 1980. The average compounding rate of tree loss over that period was 1.1% p.a.. Rates of tree loss were greater from the remnant box-stringybark stands (1.9% p.a.) occurring in the district than from remnant River Red Gum stands (0.8% p.a.). The size and crown condition of all trees in the stand under investigation were assessed. Dieback-affected trees had relatively small and open crowns, that often had many dead branchlets and branches. The crowns of dieback-affected trees were largely of secondary or epicormic origin. Tree height and stem girth were not affected by contemporary crown health. The age of one tree was estimated by radiocarbon dating to be 440. ± 110 y B.P.. Detailed investigations of trees classified as either "healthy", "average" or "unhealthy" were undertaken. The amount of organic matter in soil declined as the quality of tree cover changed from "healthy" to "unhealthy" tree to open pasture. This change was probably linked with reduced additions of organic material through litterfall as tree crown cover deteriorated. The possible consequences of reduced litterfall and declining soil organic matter levels were that; (i) it may have disrupted biogeochemical nutrient cycling; and (ii) it may have increased the susceptibility of trees to root damage and other problems associated with animal traffic. Measurements of soil strength and bulk density indicated that soil under open pasture had been compacted, presumably by animal traffic. Soil under trees was harder during winter than soil under open pasture and was therefore less susceptible to puddling. Soil under trees was not as strong as soil under open pasture during spring and hence provided more favourable conditions for root growth. Investigations into the mineral nutrition of study trees found that "unhealthy" trees did not appear able to mobilize some macronutrient elements (N,P, K, Mg) to the same extent as "healthy" trees. The apparent nutrient deficiency may have been due to disruptions to the biogeochemical nutrient cycle as dieback progressed. The nutrient deficiency may exacerbate this disruption, since it was associated and possibly linked with delayed new foliage production in "unhealthy" trees and reduced area growth in that foliage. Measurements of leaf water potential, diffusive conductance and transpiration showed that atmospheric, rather than soil water deficits had the greatest influence on water relations in the study trees. The measurements showed that "unhealthy" and "average" trees did not greatly restrict transpiration during periods of high evaporative demand. "Healthy" and "average" trees transpired more water and assimilated more carbon than did "unhealthy" trees. Differences in gas exchange were due only to large differences in leaf area. Soil under "healthy" and "average" trees remained drier than soil under "unhealthy" trees and open pasture throughout the study period. However, there was little difference in soil water depletion during the summer, even though the annual pasture had died off. Measurements provide evidence of deep infiltration of water beyond plant root zones, particularly under open pasture and "unhealthy" trees. The healthier trees appeared to have a beneficial impact on the local water balance. Continued rural dieback and/or tree loss is likely to exacerbate disruptions to the local water balance that commenced with clearing for agriculture.
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ItemRegeneration of river red gum Eucalyptus camuldulensis Dehn( 1970)The aims of this study were to investigate the main factors influencing the regeneration of river red gum Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn., in Barmah forest and to use the results to develop procedures for establishing regeneration primarily for wood production. Factors influencing germination and survival of seedlings were examined. These included seed supply, seasonal conditions, seed beds, availability of soil moisture, the influence of over-topping trees, flooding and grazing. Natural seed supply is variable because the intensity of flowering varies widely and unpredictably from year to year and about 45 per cent of flowers fail to mature. Seasonal conditions are a major factor affecting germination of seed and survival of seedlings especially in the absence of flooding. On unflooded areas germination is confined to the wetter, cooler months and survival is highest if there are good summer rains. Germination and survival following flood recession are often high. When flood recession occurs late in summer, however, hot conditions may kill most seeds or young germinates. The combination of winter-spring flooding and above average summer rains favours germination and survival. In very dry years few seedlings develop and these are restricted to the most receptive sites. Ash bed and cultivated seed beds are the most receptive sites for seedling establishment and grassed and hard bare earth sites are the least receptive. Seedling establishment is also severely restricted where weeds or over-topping trees compete with seedlings for moisture. Prolonged flooding kills large numbers of young seedlings especially if they are completely immersed for some months. Flooding is uncontrollable so it is advantageous to promote rapid seedling growth and so minimize deaths or severe flood injury. During drought periods red gum seedlings may be destroyed by rabbits, kangaroos, wild horses and cattle. When feed is abundant, however, the adverse effect of all these animals is slight. Extensive grazing of cattle on regeneration areas keeps weeds that are competing with seedlings for moisture in check, and seedling mortality due to soil drought is much less than on ungrazed areas. Several techniques for regenerating river red gum were developed from the fundamental studies and were tested on an operational scale. Of the procedures based on direct seeding clear felling followed by aerial seeding is the cheapest and most flexible, and is recommended as the technique to be used generally. The major costs involved are in seed bed preparation, poisoning non-merchantable trees, collecting seed and in aerial seeding. None of these operations is expensive. Sowing rates and time of sowing are determined on the bases of expected flooding and seed bed quality. Seed beds are made receptive by removing grass and other vegetation and preparing the ground surface by slash burning and cultivation. Procedures based on natural seed supply involve preparation of seed beds and inducement of seed fall during summer and autumn, followed by utilization of merchantable and poisoning of non-merchantable trees. Because careful timing of each phase is required to suit such factors as seed maturation, seed fall and germination, the induction of seed fall can be costly and difficult to organize. Various factors that may influence the choice of the regenerative procedure are discussed. Finally, it is concluded that the provisional stocking standards are compatible with other forest values.