School of Agriculture, Food and Ecosystem Sciences - Theses
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ItemGrazing ecology and high producing dairy cows( 2005)This body of work (82 papers in scientific journals and 2 books) encompasses two broad areas of work. They are 1) growth, nutritive value and management of pastures grazed by dairy cows (40 publications), and 2) supplements for grazing dairy cows, with a particular focus on responses associated with supplement use and digestion in the rumen (44 publications). These two areas of research are inextricably linked and, taken together, have been termed `Grazing Ecology'. Of the 84 publications included, the candidate was the senior or sole author of 67% of them. The chronological development of the work reported includes research on stocking rates reported in the early 1980's through to the development of Diet Check, a decision support tool incorporating much of the information generated during the previous two decades, in the early 2000's. The publications cover aspects of grazing management to optimise growth, persistence and nutritive value of irrigated annual and perennial pastures for dairy cows. Most of this research has incorporated some aspect of stocking rate, whether it be stocking rate per se in long term experiments or frequency and/or intensity of defoliation in shorter term experiments. The aim was to establish optimum grazing strategies that best effected the compromise of maximum intake of pasture of high nutritive value while satisfying the requirements for maintenance of pasture growth and persistence of a balance of desirable pasture species. The research allowed the definition of the intake and nutritive characteristics of pasture grazed by lactating dairy cows under a range of management conditions. At the same time, strategies to effectively feed supplements were investigated. When more than one feed is offered to dairy cows, associative effects play an important role in the eventual responses achieved. Balance of nutrients, particularly in the rumen, and substitution of supplement for pasture in the diet of grazing dairy cows, were the main aspects of the associative effect between feeds considered in the research reported here. Substitution can have a huge effect on the responses obtained from supplements, and the type of supplement, by influencing the balance of nutrients ingested into the rumen, affects the composition of the milk produced. Finally, some attempt has been made to draw much of the information on pasture management and supplementation of grazing dairy cows together for use by dairy farmers and their advisers, and to define gaps in knowledge. This has been done by reviewing the scientific literature, and by the use of modelling to provide simple tools for tactical decision making. Although the research was undertaken in northern Victoria, many of the results apply equally in other areas of the world where pasture constitutes a major proportion of the diet of dairy cows. Victoria currently produces more than 60% of Australia's milk, with northern Victoria producing more than 40% of that. The development of dairying in Victoria mirrors much of the progress of the research reported in this collection of scientific publications. Before 1982, dairy farming was almost totally based on grazed pastures and the use of pasture supplements (hay and silage). A severe drought occurred in 1982, which prompted a serious consideration of the use of supplements for lactating cows grazing pasture. Today, dairy systems in Victoria vary to a huge extent, with the energy provided by pasture ranging from 0 to 100%. Over this period, average milk production has increased, from about 3000L/cow per lactation to more than 5000L/cow. With a fine line separating profit and loss in dairy businesses that basically depend on the price received for manufactured products on overseas markets, both grazed pasture and supplements need to be used optimally. The challenge has been to provide information and tools to allow dairy farmers to achieve this objective. I believe that my research, particularly in relation to pasture intake, substitution and associative effects, has been instrumental in allowing pasture-based dairy farmers to continue to remain viable in Australia, and that many of the principles developed apply wherever pasture constitutes a significant proportion of a cow's diet.
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ItemResponses of young sheep to supplements when fed low quality roughages( 1999)The morphological components of which cereal straw is composed vary in composition and nutritive value. In a survey of relevant literature, stem materials (ST) are usually found to be consumed by ruminant animals at a slower rate than leaf material (LF) from the same crop residues when these are fed alone as separated fractions. This is attributed to the higher content of cell wall constituents (CWCs) and often lower content of N of ST. Because ST and LF can vary in proportions in the roughage fed as a basal feed, the response of animals to supplements might also be expected to be variable particularly when the basal feed is offered in excess that permits selection. In particular the response to supplemental N sources varying in ruminai degradability may vary. The objective of this thesis program was to investigate the interactions between the basal roughage and supplement measured as effects on digestion and LW responses of young sheep. The overall hypothesis was that across diets made up of different proportions of LF and ST fractions of cereal straw, the response to N supplements is dependent on CWCs concentration. The program was completed through a series of experiments conducted at the Mt Derrimut Field Satation of the University of Melbourne. In all experiments the animals were fed on a basal feed of LF or ST fractions of barley straw, with supplements including (a) Bar+USS, barley grain (Bar) fortified with urea solution prepared at a ratio of 5:1 (urea plus Na,SO4). (b) USS, urea solution alone added to the basal roughage and (c) FM, fishmeal. With each basal feed one group of lambs did not receive any supplement and served as a control group (CONT). Experiment 1 (Chapter 3) was conducted to evaluate chemical and nutritional characteristics of straw fractions of Parwon cultivar barley. Straw was separated into 4 fractions - stem (ST), leaf blade (LB), leaf sheath (LS) and broken fractions plus weeds (OT). The separated fractions were analysed chemically ( van Soest, 1974) and in vitro digestibility (Tilley and Terry 1964 ) determined. ST was the largest fraction and contained a significantly higher concentration of neutral detergent fibre (NDF; p<0.01) than LB, LS and OT (83.1, 78.6, 76.8,and 71.5 g/100g respectively). ST contained less hemicellulose (HC) than LB but more than LS and OT (37.5, 39.6, 36.3, and 35.7 respectively). N content was lower in ST than in LB, LS and OT fractions (0.4, 0.9, 0.6, and 0.7 respectively). Digestibility in vitro was significantly lower (P<0.001) for ST than for other fractions (38.5, 72.7, 60.1, and 63.0 respectively) while energy required for grinding (Chenost 1966) was much higher (P<0.001) for ST than for other fractions (121, 54.6, 64.2, 56.6 respectivly). In Experiment 2 (Chapter 4) ST and LF fractions of the same Parwon barley straw were fed as the basal feed to lambs and DM intake of ST was 15% lower than for LF (403 vs 473 g/d). When LF feed was supplemented with USS and FM, DM intake was greater by 28% and 25% respectively, while supplementation with Bar+USS resulted in 10% lower LF intake. In contrast, with animals fed ST as the basal roughage, only FM led to an increase in DM intake of only 10%. Supplementation with Bar+US and USS and FM improved overall digestibility, estimated metabolisable energy intake and N intake. Low N intakes on the basal roughages supported low ruminai ammonia-N concentrations (mg/1) immediately before feeding (ST, 20.4 ; LF 35.8), but these were improved where supplements had been fed with each of ST Bar+USS, 263.7; USS, 186.7; and FM, 151) and LF (Bar+USS, 219.5; USS, 62.5; and FM, 150). Six hours after feeding, ammonia-N concentrations (mg/l)were higher for ST (99) still low for LF(35) when fed alone, reduced below the prefeeding levels by supplements of Bar+USS (ST,167; LF 173) but raised by USS (ST, 201; LF 148) and FM (ST, 114; LF, 192). The concentrations of total volatile fatty acids (VFA) in rumen fluid (mMoUl) were not significantly different for ST and LF before feeding except where FM was the supplement, or six hours after feeding except where Bar+USS or USS were fed with LF (before feeding: ST, 51; Bar+USS, 55.7; USS,46.5; FM, 56 ; LF, 42.6; Bar+USS, 53; USS, 55.5; FM, 63.6; 6h after feeding ST, 55.5; Bar+USS, 70.2; USS, 62.1; FM, 50.4 ; LF, 55.7; Bar+USS, 69.5; USS, 60.9; FM, 60.9). Lambs on ST and LF alone lost weight (ST, -105; LF -98 g/d ). Rate of liveweight loss was less when Bar+USS (ST, -32.3; LF -2.4g/d) and USS (ST, -79.8; LF -31.2 g/d) supplements were fed, while FM promoted LW gain (ST, 37.5; LF, 72.4g/d). N retention data was consistent with these LW gains, except where Bar+USS was the supplement, in which case the animals were in positive N balance though losing weight. Wool growth was significantly improved (P<0.001) only by FM on both ST (+47%) and LF (+57%) basal roughages. In Experiments 3 and 4 (Chapter . 5 and 6) the objective was to investigate the factors responsible for low feed intake and poor performance of lambs fed ST compred to those on LF. The DMI (g/d) of lambs fed ST and LF were similar to those achieved in experiment 2; and were significantly greater for LF (P<0.001). Likewise supplements of Bar+USS, USS and FM had similar effects to those reported for experiment 2_ Changes in DMI, MEI ruminai environment before feeding or 6 and:12 hours after feeding were consistent with those recorded during experiment 2. However concentration of total VFA was significantly elevated at 12 hours after feeding. Differences in ruminal environment were evident in terms of VFA concentrations and the distribution of rumen digesta particulate material in different size fractions; both variables were affected both by the basal diet and the supplement. For LF, the proportions of particles >2mm and of very fine particles (0.125 mm) were greater and for particles between 0.5 and 1 mm less those for ST in all cases. Further, the proportion of particles >2mm was less where FM was fed than for any other feeding regime. The mean retention times of rumen fluid, measured from CoEDTA dilution rate, and calculated for rumen particulate material was longer (24%, P<0.01) for ST than for LF but there was no significant effect of supplement on this (Experiment 4, Chapter 6). The mean percentage of very fine particles in the faeces of lambs fed on LF was higher than for lambs fed ST alone or with supplements. Rate of ruminai degradation of OM of ST and LF as measured by nylon bag technique ( Experiment 3, Chapter 5) was similar at 12 and 24 hours but greater for LF than for ST at 48 and 96 hours of incubation. Bar (cracked whole grain) was degraded more rapidly and extensiveley than FM; in LF fed sheep this difference was more marked. Rate of degradation of acid detergent fibre (ADF) was influenced by the kind of supplement and was greatest in lambs given FM , and least in lambs given ST with no supplement. Only the FM supplement resulted in LW gains, though rates of LW loss were least and LW gains with FM were greatest with LF as the basal roughage. The responses are interpreted as flowing from the greater proportion of ADF and lignin in the CWCs content and the greater digestibility of ADF in the LF fraction. The ST feed fraction with higher concentrations of cell wall constituents (CWCs) as NDF was eaten at a slower rate (Experiment 5, Chapter 7) and digesta particulate material and, in these experiments, the fluid phase are retained longer in the rumen. LF showed not only an advantage over ST in these respects but also in terms of a number of important digestion parameters supported a greater response to supplements, particularly N supplements of low degradability. Thus FM is these experiments interacted with the roughage component of the diet. It provided more consistent ruminai ammonia concentrations supporting a better environment for microbial activity and growth. Microbial protein together with undegraded dietary protein together provide a balance of nutrients that allows LW gains on otherwise submaintenance basal feeds. The greater enhancement of performance with LF compared to ST and the particle size measurements suggest that greater fragmentability of LF may be a major contributor . In terms of technical improvement of livestock feeding systems, providing the animal with opportunity for selection of more leaf and less stem may improve the likelihood of responses to supplements but this was not demonstrated in Experiment 5. FM was used as the experimental supplement to provide slowly degraded and undegraded dietary protein of high biological value to the animal. FM is expensive and other crop byproducts and local feed materials with properties of slow degradability of protein and good amino acid balance need to be identified. An alternative strategy would be to provide a maximum opportunity for the selection of most digestible parts. If refusals are then collected, quality could be further improved with alkali treatment and necessary supplementation. This would provide a strategy for the use of morphological fractions which could be an economical approach for the efficient utilization of roughages.
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ItemVariability in the intake of supplements by grazing sheep( 1979)Although the practice of feeding supplements to grazing animals is widespread through the world, its efficiency still deserves further study. Factors associated with the supplements themselves, the animals being fed, the environment, and the grazing diet being supplemented together constitute a set of variables which affects not only acceptance and intake, but also the nutritional and economic efficiencies of supplementary feeding. This study is concerned with the feeding of supplements to grazing sheep under temperate climatic conditions. Oat grain, hay and molasses-urea blocks (Barastoc, KMM Pty. Ltd., Melbourne) were used initially, but subsequent experiments were confined to the utilization of molasses-urea blocks. Only recently have researchers emphasized the importance of variability in supplement intake between individuals within a herd or flock and estimates of intake, with large ranges between animals, have now appeared in the literature. Langlands and Bowles (1976) considered that such wide variabilities in intake, limit the effectiveness of all forms of supplementation. However, little is known about the factors affecting variability in a group situation and few attempts have been made to identify the possible factors inducing such wide ranges of intakes in grazing animals. Arnold and Bush (1968) identified three types. of sheep: "shy-feeders", periodic non-feeders, and over indulgers". In some situations social dominance has been observed to affect responses to supplements (Franklin and Sutton, 1952; Wagnon, 1965; Squires and Daws, 1975) , and Arnold and taller (1974) correlated the intake of supplements with body weights of sheep. Chapter 1 of this thesis reviews the direct and indirect effects on animal performance of the main factors related to the feeding of supplements. Chapter 2 presents estimations of intake of three supplements, oats, hay, molasses-urea block, made with sheep in small paddocks. Results of behavioural observations and body measurements of the sheep are presented and discussed separately in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 provides an assessment of the acceptability of molasses-urea blocks by seven different flocks of grazing sheep on five private properties. The effects of confining sheep in yards on their acceptance of the blocks are also reported. Few studies have sought to determine whether management stratagems may improve the rate of adaptation of sheep to molasses-urea blocks and induce more uniform intakes between animals. Pilot trials described in Chapter 5 were conducted to identify possible management procedures that may be suitable for these purposes. Four such procedures were sufficiently encouraging to justify testing in a replicated experiment, which is described in Chapter 6. These treatments were imposed on sheep confined in yards and fed hay at a submaintenance levels. The investigations described in Chapter 7 utilised a different approach and are concerned with the behavioural aspects of learning, a topic which has been intensively studied with laboratory animals but only rarely with farm animals. The effects of offering molasses-urea blocks to lambs in the pre-weaning period are assessed in terms of their acceptance of blocks in later life. Inevitably only a few experimental possibilities and combinations have been assessed in the work reported in this thesis. Major attention was directed towards molasses-urea blocks because they induced wider variability in the responses by sheep than did hay or grain supplements . The blocks used were those manufactured by KMM Pty. Ltd., Melbourne, had a hard texture for protection against wet weather conditions and required animals to lick them rather than chew them. Variations in block formulation were not studied in the work described in this thesis and it remains possible that other types of block may have produced different results.
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ItemEffects of resistance to prehension and structure of pastures on grazing behaviour and intake of dairy cows( 2000)Pasture intake by dairy cows is affected by plant and sward structural characteristics of the pasture. In the meantime, grazing animals are constrained to gather their food bite by bite removing only a portion of the herbage present at the location which they bite. The extent to which grazing animals overcome the constraints imposed by the plant and structural characteristics of the pasture is the major determinant of herbage intake. The experiments which form the basis of this thesis concentrated on determining the role of sward resistance to prehension, measured in situ, as an integrating sward characteristic that determines foraging decisions of cows and the extent to which they defoliate pasture swards. Under rotational grazing systems, a cow is offered an area of pasture that is often smaller than the area from which the cow harvests its bites (defoliated area, DA). The cow therefore faces changing sward conditions during the process of grazing down into the sward and removing bites at successive lower defoliation planes. The defoliation pattern in grazing down the sward profile and the consequent herbage intake and diet composition, are examined in this thesis. A novel apparatus was designed to measure the BFF in situ at different sward profile heights. In the initial experiment, changes in BFF down the sward profile of six pasture species were examined in order to evaluate the mechanical efficiency of defoliating bites at different depths, in terms of bite weight:BFF ratio. The hypothesis tested was that cows remove 30 - 40% of the sward height at each bite due to a mechanical advantage in terms of BW:BFF. The BFF varied more between defoliation strata than between pasture species. The bite weight and BFF increased with the depth of defoliation. The mechanical efficiency of defoliating bites estimated as the BW:BFF ratio declined slightly with bite depth until a depth of about 30 - 40% of the sward height is reached, when the ratio declined more rapidly. Based on these results and those of Wade (1991), four theoretical defoliation planes (DPI, DP2, DP3 & DP4) were set each at 35% of the pre-grazing sward heights to estimate the total area defoliated by grazing cows under different sward conditions. DP2 is the plane of removal of a second bite after a first bite has removed DPI. Three spring grazing experiments were conducted to explore relationships between pasture allowance and/or sward structure and intake dynamics. In the first experiment, cows were offered a herbage allowance (HA) of 50 kg DM/cow/day either as one block with continuous access for 24 hours, or as six equal break rations opened at intervals during a 24 hour period. In the two subsequent experiments, different sward types were created in order to alter the BFF. In the second experiment swards were created with two different surface heights (USH) and in a 2 x 2 factorial, cows were offered two HA (35 and 70 kgDM/cow/day). In the third experiment, swards with three different tiller densities were created and cows were offered a similar HA of 8 kg DM/cow/3 hours. The defoliation pattern, BFF at 30, 50 and 70% of USH, DM intake, grazing behaviour and the energetics of grazing were measured. The major conclusions derived from these experiments are as follows. The average depth of defoliation (DD) increased with sward height and fell between DP2 and DP4. However, the proportion of area defoliated at each defoliation plane declined down the profile, at rates that varied with HA and tiller density but was unaffected by sward height. At a HA of 70 kg, cows barely reached DP4. The area defoliated at DP4 increased with decreasing herbage allowance and decreasing tiller density. The initial bulk density and post-grazed bulk density declined with USH, but the grazed-stratum bulk density was not significantly affected by USH. Therefore, it was concluded that the volume of canopy defoliated was the major determinant of intake. With increasing HA, the average bite weight (BW) increased, prehension bite rate declined but the overall intake rate increased. The time cost of a bite increased with BW. However, the energy expenditure on prehending a bite did not show a consistent relationship with BW. The BFF increased with sward height and tiller density. However, BFF in the leafy layer of 70% of the sward height was not affected by initial sward height or tiller density. The increase in BFF with initial sward height and tiller density was greater in the lower stemmy layer of 30% sward height. The average bite area (BA) and BW increased with HA. Intake was positively correlated with HA (R = 0.49), HM (R = 0.65) and tiller density (R = 0.51). Multiple regression analysis with herbage intake as the dependent variable indicated that, in addition to HM and HA (R2 = 0.887) , inclusion of the difference in BFF between that at 30% USH and that at 70% USH (BFFdif) as a sward characteristic provided an equation with a substantially better fit (R2 = 0.956). DMI = -3.47 + 1.80 HM + 0.225 HA R2 = 0.887 DMI = -2.73 I + 2.76 HM + 0.732 HA - 0.0416 BFFdif R2 = 0.956 It is concluded that the BFFdif has a significant value in integrating the changes in sward characteristics down the profile and is useful in improving the intake model.