School of Agriculture, Food and Ecosystem Sciences - Theses

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    An evaluation of management by objectives as a planning system in a government veterinary service
    Wroth, Robert Harold ( 197-?)
    The need, for field officers, of State Departments of Agriculture to plan their work has been recognized for many years. In the last 10 years particular attention has been paid to program planning by Extension officers. However, it has become apparent that program planning is not being used effectively. Reasons for this range from the lack of defined organizational objectives to difficulties associated with planning at the individual level. The purpose of this study was to test the feasibility of introducing MBO into a Department of Agriculture and its effectiveness in overcoming planning difficulties. In order to test this a MBO system was used to plan for the eradication of bovine Brucellosis by two country regions of the Division of Animal Health in the Victorian Department of Agriculture. Two other regions acted as controls and prepared plans without MBO. The effectiveness of MBO was evaluated on the criteria of involvement and participation of field officers, their job satisfaction, job dissatisfaction, understanding of the plans and the MBO process and the importance of aspects for planning. The major finding was the difference in response of Officers at higher and lower levels of authority and responsibility. Those at higher levels viewed MBO more favourably than those at lower levels, and consequently considered they had significantly more involvement and participation than previously. The study also highlighted deficiencies that existed, such as confusion as to lines of responsibility and lack of two way communication between Regional and Head Office staff, and showed how this can lead to increased job dissatisfaction. The work to be performed was not seen as personally satisfying, thus lowering job satisfaction, and so reduced the apparent success of MBO. However, the overall conclusion was that MBO was a realistic system to use for planning by Department of Agriculture personnel and that it did overcome problems associated with program planning. General and specific recommendations on the use of MBO are made.
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    A systems analysis approach to drought reserves in the Hamilton region
    Thatcher, L. P (1944-) ( 1971)
    Following a discussion of drought strategies available to the grazier, one particular strategy, the holding of drought fodder reserves, is examined in detail. The study estimates the least-cost fodder reserves for a range of stocking rate-pasture production regimes in the Hamilton region. The amount of hay feeding required on any stocking-pasture regime is determined from a simulation model of the grazing complex. In this model, three levels of pasture production are stocked at rates ranging from one to ten wethers per acre. The pasture production assumed ranges from "excellent" (i.e. equivalent to the Hamilton Research Station pastures which produce about 10,000 lb. dry matter per annum) to "poor" (35% less). The climatic inputs into the grazing model are the date of Autumn break, for which a formula is derived, and the June to October rainfall. The pasture sub-model is specified and used to derive the pasture which is "grown" in the grazing model. The sheep aspects of the model are reviewed in detail to derive the relationships which are used in the next set of four sub-models in which animal intake is simulated and liveweight changes determined. This set of four sub-models provides for the four situations of animal intake which may be met. These are: The intake of green pasture alone (i.e. all pasture grown after the Autumn Break); the intake of hay alone; the intake of hay and green pasture together; the intake of hay and dry pasture (pasture remaining when the Autumn Break occurs and dry pasture alone which are handled in the same sub-model) The grazing model was validated for the years 1965-67 using data from the Pastoral Research Station, Hamilton, and showed good agreement for all three years simulated, one of which featured a severe drought. Drought feeding requirements (hay) are determined for each of the years 1879 to 1967 and for the ten stocking rate-pasture production regimes, using specific hay feeding rules. These rules, which aim at sheep survival, do not attempt to specify optimum feeding rates per sheep, and any change in them could significantly alter the drought requirements for any of the regimes studied. Furthermore, the estimates are Lased on the assumption that all sheep are fed through the drought. A pre-drought strategy which permitted the sale of certain classes of sheep at some stage during drought would entail lower feed requirements and might have a lower expected cost, especially at high acquisition costs for feed and low replacement costs for sheep. An inventory analysis is then undertaken, based on a 12 month planning period, which utilises the hay feeding probabilities generated in the grazing model, and provides estimates of the least-cost hay reserve. In contrast to previous studies, the price of hay is related to drought length in calculating the penalty cost of inadequate reserves. The effects of varying several parameters of the inventory model are then examined. The parameters varied are hay costs ($4, $10 and $16 per ton), interest rates (7%, 20% and 50%), and salvage values, and these vary in association with the parameters varied in the grazing model (stocking rate, pasture production and the area closed for hay). At the intermediate values for pasture production and hay cost and a 7 per cent per annum interest rate, the minimum-cost reserve rises sharply, from 2 bales per acre at 2 wethers per acre, to 4.5 bales per acre at 3 wethers per acre, 8 bales per acre at 4 wethers per acre, and 15 bales per acre at 5 wethers per acre. The minimum-cost reserve was found to be relatively insensitive to changes in acquisition costs, except at low stocking rates, where a change in reserve of one or two half-bales per sheep was common as acquisition cost varied over the three levels. The effect of interest rates was also examined for the average pasture regime. On the lowest level of hay acquisition cost, ($4 per ton) increasing the rate of interest from 7 to 50 per cent caused reductions of only one half-bale per sheep. However, at high acqusition cost ($16 per ton) raising the interest rate to 20 per cent resulted in a considerable reduction in the minimum-cost reserve, especially on the lower stocking rates, and raising the interest rate to 50 per cent made holding fodder reserves uneconomic for any stocking rate. One measure of the risk in holding various levels of fodder reserve is the standard deviation of the total expected cost. As expected, it was found that this declines as the reserve is expanded to the maximum ever required. However, only a small reduction in standard deviation results from expanding the reserve beyond the minimum-cost level. Finally, estimates were made of the income-maximising stocking rate for each level of pasture production and hay cost, with the wool price at 30, 40 and 50 cents per lb.. At the intermediate values for pasture production (8,000 lb. D.M.) and hay cost ($10 per ton), and with wool at 30 cents per lb. net, the income-maximising stocking rate was 3 wethers per acre. Each increase of 10 cents per lb. in the wool price was generally associated with an increase of one or two wethers per acre in the income-maximising stocking rate. An increase of 2,000 lb. D.M. (from "average" to "excellent") in average annual pasture production was generally associated with an increase of one wether per acre in the income-maximising stocking rate. A reduction of 1,500 lb. from "average" to "poor" pasture. production reduced the income-maximising stocking rate by about one wether per acre. Increasing the hay cost from $4 to $10 per ton reduced the profit-maximising stocking rate by one wether per acre for all combinations of pasture production and wool price examined. However, a further increase in acquisition cost from $10 to $16 per ton only caused a further reduction in the income-maximising stocking rate at the poor level of pasture production: with average pasture production there was little change and with excellent production there was no change in the income-maximising stocking rate.
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    Farm adjustment on the Wimmera plains
    Hunt, C. A. G ( 1971)
    In the past, in some wheat growing areas of Victoria, particularly the Wimmera, there has been almost total reliance on wheat, other enterprises filling a minor role in the farming system. With the introduction of wheat delivery quotas in April 1969, farm operators were faced with a sudden drop in income. The cost-price squeeze has aggravated the income problem. A typical Wimmera Plains wheat farm of 625 acres is small by Australian standards, but it has the potential to produce 7,500 bushels of wheat, or more, under a fertility-maintaining rotation. In 1970-71, however, farms of this size had, on average, a quota of only 4,700 bushels. The possible level of gross income from wheat has been reduced by between $400 and $3,000 per annum, depending on the comparative profitability of alternative enterprises to wheat. The aim of the study was to investigate two important aspects of the farm adjustment problem on the Wimmera Plains; firstly, the best use of resources released from wheat production, and secondly, the potential for adjustment towards optimal resource combinations. A sample of 20 farms, chosen at random from a population of 129, was surveyed in May and June, 1970. The data collected, together with information supplied by the Victorian Department of Agriculture, provided farm planning coefficients. Because of the relatively homogeneous nature of farms with respect to resource complements and enterprise possibilities, the representative farm model approach was considered to be satisfactory for the examination of farm adjustment possibilities on the Wimmera Plains. Using a representative model, linear programming was used to generate profit-maximising farm plans. Variable price programming was used to study the effect of commodity price changes on income. Because of the dominating importance of feed grains in plans, and uncertainty about their prices, enterprise combinations were studied at both "high" and "low" feed-grain prices. To substantiate the results generated for the representative farm model, five of the sample farms were studied individually. When only the "traditional" enterprises (cereals and sheep) were considered, planning results suggested that the five course rotation, pasture, fallow, crop, fallow, crop, with winter-lambing Merino ewes, is the maximum profit plan at both "high" and "low" feed grain prices. Wheat is grown to the level of quota and barley is grown on the remaining cropped area. Income from livestock is minor relative to crop income, providing only 15 to 30 per cent of total gross margin. However, several alternative (or "new') enterprises which are not vet commonly practised in the area were found to offer considerable promise. Oilseed crops, especially oilseed rape, are profitable alternatives to barley, particularly at low feed-grain prices. Even at the current relatively high feed grain prices, and assuming a conservative yield, rapeseed has the potential to lift income from the 625 acre representative farm model by up to $700 per annum. More experience is required with oilseed crops in the area before firm recommendations can be made. Beef cattle, grain feeding of beef, and pigs, can also contribute to increased farm income. Cattle compete directly with sheep for feed, but pigs can be integrated into the existing farming system using farm-grown barley and surplus operator labour. The returns to capital investment in the cattle and pig enterprises were found to be favourable, especially in the case of pigs. If the necessary capital is to be borrowed, however, it is unlikely that there will be surplus disposable income from cattle enterprises during a ten-year repayment period. Gains to the individual farmer from wheat quota negotiability were investigated. The five case-study farms were considered as a "mini-market" for wheat quota under perfect competition. Assuming that the five operators bought or sold quota in order to maximise their income, the average theoretical gain per farm, from negotiability, was between $100 and $200 per annum, depending on the price of barley. In the theoretical quota market seven thousand bushels of wheat quota were exchanged between the five farms. The return to labour and management which is possible on the typical 625 acre Wimmera Plains farm was found to be below an "acceptable" level of $3,500 per annum. However, at current land values, which have fallen substantially since 1968, the purchase or lease of additional land by typical farmers seems to be profitable. Results indicated that the machinery and labour capacity of the "typical" 625 acre property was sufficient to effectively farm more than 1,000 acres. Eleven per cent of the 129 farms in the Wimmera study area were found to be smaller than 500 acres in size. For such farms, additional land as well as additional quota would probably be necessary for viability, at least at low feed-grain prices.
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    The phosphorus requirements of wheat crops grown in the Victorian Mallee
    McClelland, V. F ( 1969)
    Some of the material presented in this thesis is based on papers which are already published or are in the process of publication. Paper 1 is taken from - McClelland, V. P. (1968). - Superphosphate on wheat : The cumulative effect of repeated applications on yield response. Aust. J. agric. Res. 19, 1-8. and paper 2 from - McClelland, V. P. (1968). - Superphosphate on wheat z The influence of previous level of application on current effect. Aust. J. exp. Agric. Anim. Husb. 9, 622-4. Other publications from this thesis will also be in this author's name.
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    The effect of applied N and P under mowing and grazing on the yield and botanical and chemical composition of irrigated pasture and on the nutrient status of a red-brown earth at Kyabram
    Roufail, A (1935-) ( 1978)
    A split plot experiment was conducted over 4 years to study the effect of method of harvesting (grazing and mowing) and applied N and P (5 rates of nitrogen ranged from 0 to 112 kg N ha -1 cut-1 and 6 rates of superphosphate ranged from 0 to 188 kg P ha 1 year year-1) on the yield, botanical and chemical composition of irrigated phalaris (Phalaris tuberosa x Phalaris arundinacea)/white clover (Trifolium repens L. cv. Irrigation) pasture and nutrient status of a red-brown earth at Kyabram. A second experiment was conducted over 2 years to find out the effect of rates (0 to 112 kg N ha. 1) and frequency of N application (2, 4 or 8 times year ) o n dry matter production, botanical composition and crude protein content of paspalum (Paspalum dilatatum)/white clover pasture. Results: Mowed plots significantly out-yielded grazed plots in the first two years. However, grazed plots significantly out-yielded mowed plots in the following two years. Nitrogen application significantly (P <0.01) increased dry matter production of grass/clover mixtures. The size of response was governed by the growth rate of pasture species, clover percentage in the sward, climatic conditions and the status of other nutrients in the soil. Splitting N rates in smaller but more frequent applications had no effect on total herbage yield or seasonal distribution. Response to N (kg D.M. kg N-1 ) declined as N rates increased. Phosphorus application up to 94 kg P ha -1 year -1 significantly (P,(0.01) increased pasture production and relative response was greater in winter. Occasionally, the P and N requirements for maximum production were higher for grazing than for mowing. Both methods of defoliation and fertilizer applications affected pasture composition and IT, P and K content in the herbage. Nitrogen application decreased N in the herbage before increasing it and P application up to 141 kg P ha- 1 year -1 increased it. The return by the grazing animal increased total soil N by 106 kg ha 1 year 1 and soil P (Colwell) by 1:0 p.p.m. in four years compared with the start of the experiment. The relationship between plant P and soil P and P rates were significant (P < 0.01). The available soil P decreased with P withdrawal or the application of 23.5 kg P ha-1 year -1 under grazing and 47 kg P ha -1 year-1 under mowing. Phosphorus and nitrogen application significantly affected available soil P. 60-80% of the available P accuminulated in the 0-5 cm and the downward movement increased by increasing P rates. The continuous mowing and P application significantly reduced available soil K. Defoliation method affected C/t:N ratio. Phosphorus application increased soil N whereas N application decreased it. P application at the rate of 23.5 kg ha-1 year-1 increased total soil N by 0.068% which is equivalent to 952 kg N ha-1 in five years. It was estimated that 4 to 4.7 p.p.m of P was required to be removed or added to the soil to change the available soil P by 1 p.p.m. The application of 196 kg N ha-1 year -1 as NH4 NO3 did not change the soil pH and 784 kg N ha 1 year 1 reduced soil pH by an average of ').4 unit.
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    An economic study of small dairy farms in South Gippsland, Victoria
    MacAulay, Thomas Gordon ( 1969)
    From the study of small dairy farms (defined as producing less than 10,000 pounds of butterfat in 1964-65) in the Shire of South Gippsland, and with the aid of a short-term linear programming model of a typical small dairy farm, it was concluded that alleviation of some of the problems of low-income dairy farms may be achieved by both increased levels of technology and increased farm area. The study began with a review of the structure of the dairy industry and an evaluation of research related to the low-income problem in that industry. An assessment of the extent and nature of the small-farm, low-income problem in the Shire of South Gippsland was made using the results of a survey of 26 small dairy farms in the Shire. To aid consideration of the conditions under which a typical small dairy farm, such as in the Shire of South Gippsland, might obtain a "reasonable" income (judged to be a farm income greater than $2,700), a linear programming model was constructed. The model was a short-term one designed to represent a typical small dairy farm. It was used to show the effects on income levels of the use of sideline enterprises such as vealers, pigs and sheep; the effects of changes in the level of technology (increases in production per cow and pasture production per acre), and the means of achieving improved levels; and also the effects of changes in farm area combined with changes in the level of technology. The marketing and support policies relating to the dairy industry play an important part in influencing the low-income problem, principally through the attraction of resources to the industry and the encouragement of resources already committed to the industry to remain. Such an effect calls for structural change and the reinstatement of the forces of supply and demand as the main determinants of the allocation of resources to the industry. The extent of the small-farm problem in the Shire of South Gippsland was indicated by the finding that 34 per cent of the dairy farms in the Shire produced less than 10,000 pounds of butterfat in 1964-65. The survey of 26 of these small dairy farms has permitted a clear definition of a typical small dairy farm in physical and financial terms. As well, it has highlighted the low income levels on such farms which obtained an average net farm income of $514 over the three years 1962-63 to 1964-65 and $769 in 1964-65. Only four of the survey farms had a net farm income greater than $2,000 in 1964-65. Farm-family welfare on most of the farms was considered to be inadequate and the allocation of resources to these farms was judged to be inefficient, even when the equalized and subsidized price for butterfat was taken to represent the social valuation, placed on butterfat. With an optimum allocation of the resources available to a typical small dairy farm, as represented in the linear programming model, it was found that either with or without sideline activities and with up to 400 acres of land such a farm could not be expected to produce a "reasonable" income. However, with moderate increases in the level of technology considerable increases in income levels were obtained (a farm income of $1,999 was obtained with a standard level of technology and 132 acres, but a farm income of $5,378 was obtained with an improved level of technology). It was also observed that the maximum income levels were obtained at farm areas somewhat larger than was typical of. the survey farms and that the farm area giving the maximum income increased with an improved level of technology. Other results indicated off-farm work to be helpful in raising income levels, but it is likely in the longer term to lead to deterioration of the farm. For this reason off-farm work may best be considered as a temporary expedient. It was found that pasture production was a major restriction preventing increased income and for this reason agistment played an important part in many of the plans derived. Working capital, as defined, was not shown to be a major limitation to the attainment of greater income. The value of linear programming in such a study was apparent. By specifying important relationships it was possible to determine the broad effects of a wide variety of changes that might be made. By making assumptions about the real situation and using a number of simplifications an understanding of a complex situation was made possible with this technique. The results showed the importance of increased farm area combined with higher levels of technology and this led to the suggestion that the proposed scheme for the encouragement of amalgamation of small dairy farms by the Commonwealth Government might well include some form of assistance in,planning farm development and raising levels of technology. Such assistance could be made conditional to the granting of help under the scheme. Although amalgamation and improvement in the level of technology are important adjustments, the problem of greater overall production as a result of such changes can only be overcome if changes in structure are made at both the farm and the national levels.
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    Farm size, structural change, and adjustment policy : a study of the dried vine fruit industry in Sunraysia and Robinvale
    Cramb, R. A (1951-) ( 1977)
    Dried vine fruit farms in Sunraysia and Robinvale were nearly all established under closer settlement schemes, with farm size averaging about 8 hectares. The present study indicates that economics of size exist up to a harvested area of about 25 hectares. This would suggest that structural change is occurring in the industry, with farms being amalgamated to take advantage of these economies of size. However, structural change in recent years has been negligible. Some of the obstacles to adjustment are examined in the thesis. They have important implications for government policy; in particular, there is a need for a Land Authority to facilitate adjustment in dried vine fruit growing regions. The thesis also considers some methodological problems in estimating economies of size, and in deriving policy proposals from such estimates. It concludes that the results of most studies of farm size, including this one, must he regarded as provisional, pending the outcome of properly designed empirical tests. It also concludes that the Paretian concept of efficiency is inadequate as a framework for adjustment policy. I would like to thank my supervisors,Mr. G.W. Edwards, Mr. N.H. Sturgess, and Dr. A.S. Watson, for their advice and encouragement during this study. I am also grateful to Mr. John Connell who colaborated on a preliminary statistical analysis (see Section 4.1.6). Acknowledgement is made to the Bureau of Agricultural Economics for the data used in the empirical sections of the thesis. I am grateful to Mrs. Sue Valiance for her excellent typing of the manuscript, and to Mr. Bill Dahl for preparing the diagrams. I was assisted financially by an A.M. White Scholarship and an R.W.S. Nicholas Scholarship. Finally, I would like to thank my wife, Jacky, for her financial support, for help in preparing the bibliography, and for her patient encouragement.